دانشگاه شهید بهشتی فصلنامه تحقیقات حقوقی 1024-0772 28 2 2025 06 22 Contributory Infringement as an Indirect Liability in Copyright Law مسئولیت ناشی از مساعدت در نقض به مثابه یکی از انواع مسئولیت غیرمستقیم در نقض کپی‌رایت 1 18 102694 10.48308/jlr.2022.225868.2101 FA احسان جعفرخانی دانشجوی دوره دکتری، دانشکده حقوق، دانشگاه شهید بهشتی، تهران، ایران. گودرز افتخار جهرمی استاد دانشکده حقوق، دانشگاه شهیدبهشتی، تهران، ایران. Journal Article 2022 06 07 The advancement of industry and technology has been an inevitable and often desirable aspect of human history, enhancing human welfare and power, and becoming a central goal for many. Government and corporate policies have also focused on expanding technology. However, these advancements can create opportunities for misuse, endangering individuals’ rights, including copyright. Modern technologies have facilitated the creation of copyrighted works but have also made their infringement easier. Opportunists exploit technology to enable widespread copyright infringement without directly violating it, rendering legal protections for copyright ineffective, as rights holders often cannot identify infringements or pursue claims against numerous infringers. Since halting technological progress is neither feasible nor desirable, a new approach to copyright law is needed to ensure its enforcement by establishing clear liabilities for those facilitating infringement. In this article, our goal is to examine in detail one of the types of indirect liability that has been identified for facilitators of copyright infringement, through a comparative study of the judicial practice of the United States of America, and also to examine the possibility of identifying this type of liability in the Iranian legal system. The United States was chosen for this comparative study due to its significant industrial and technological advancements, its status as a hub for major investments, and its capitalist system with strong copyright protections. The U.S federal courts, relying on common law without needing new legislation, have recognized three types of indirect liability in copyright infringement and clarified their dimensions in various rulings. In this article, key federal courts decisions on contributory infringement are studied aiming to analyze its aspects based on external conditions of each aforementioned claims through primary sources, elucidating U.S. judicial precedent for readers. Additionally, inspired by the U.S. judges’ reliance on common law, this article references Islamic (Imami) jurisprudential principles and Iranian civil liability doctrines that accept indirect liability in specific cases, aiming to explore the potential for recognizing such liability in Iran’s literary and artistic property law through unity criterion. In the U.S. copyright system, three types of indirect liability are recognized: vicarious liability, liability for inducing infringement, and contributory infringement, each with distinct bases but sharing the common feature of holding someone other than the direct infringer liable. This article focuses solely on contributory infringement, outlining its conditions and characteristics. The key judicial definition of contributory infringement – which the courts have identified all the elements of this liability based on that definition– is: “One who, with knowledge of the infringing activity, induces, causes or materially contributes to the infringing conduct of another, may be held liable as a "contributory" infringer.” According to this definition, there must be two basic elements to identify liability: (1) knowledge of the infringement and (2) material contribution to it. Regarding the element of knowledge, it can be stated that explicit and actual knowledge of specific cases of infringement will certainly be recognized as the element of knowledge in imposing this type of liability, and also if the external conditions of the dispute are such that any reasonable person can achieve a typical knowledge of the infringement cases, this typical and conventional knowledge will also be sufficient to impose liability. Regarding the element of effective participation and cooperation, it should also be noted that courts have usually not addressed the causal relationship in examining this element and have considered a form of extensive facilitation of the violation as the realization of this element. In Iranian law, rooted in Imami jurisprudence in many aspects of civil liability, the principle is personal liability, and one cannot generally be held responsible for another’s damage, as affirmed by rules like the "Vezr Rule". However, in both jurisprudence and statutory law there are cases where the sacred shariah or legislator has recognized indirect liability based on wisdom or expediency, such as the liability of the Aqila, public treasury, guardians, or employers, which in these cases have acted contrary to the principle of personal liability. What is of great importance in this text is that in contributory infringement liability, there is a form of participation accompanied by knowledge of the indirect infringer, and thus, it may be simpler to recognize this type of liability through the principles of direct causation and contributory causation. Given that there is no definitive religious or legal prohibition against recognizing indirect liability in Iran’s legal system, and considering that in certain cases, both the Sharia and the legislature have deviated from this principle, in the copyright legal system, if the goal is to truly protect copyright, this type of liability can be recognized: Because the absence of such liability would effectively render copyright protection meaningless. To delineate the scope of this liability, one can undoubtedly draw on the principles underlying other forms of indirect liability, as well as the concepts of direct causation (Mubasharat) and contributory causation (Tasbib), while also leveraging U.S. judicial precedent, to define the extent of this liability with specific limitations. با توجه به آنکه فناوری‌های متعدد به‌گونه‌ای طراحی‌شده‌اند که نقض کپی‌رایت را در سطحی وسیع ممکن می‌سازند، به این معنا که خود آنها به‌طور مستقیم مبادرت به نقض کپی‌رایت نمی‌کنند، اما نقض کپی‌رایت برای ناقضان مستقیم را در سطحی وسیع تسهیل می‌سازند. نظام‌های حقوقی دنیا به این سمت پیش رفته‌اند که انواعی از مسئولیت غیرمستقیم را در کنار مسئولیت مستقیم ناشی از نقض کپی‌رایت مورد شناسایی قرار دهند. نظام حقوقی آمریکا که سردمدار اصلی در این زمینه است، مسئولیت ناشی از مساعدت در نقض را تحت شرایطی خاص پیش‌بینی کرده است که استفاده از ارکان آن در کنار پذیرش ضرورت شناسایی مسئولیت غیرمستقیم در نقض کپی‌رایت می‌تواند برای سایر نظام‌های حقوقی راهگشا باشد. در نظام حقوقی ایران، با توجه به آنکه منع شرعی یا قانونی در پذیرش مسئولیت غیرمستقیم در نقض کپی‌رایت وجود ندارد، می‌توان با استفاده از مبانی موجود، ارکان پیش‌بینی‌شده در مسئولیت ناشی از مساعدت در نقض را برای تعیین دامنۀ مسئولیت غیرمستقیم در نقض کپی‌رایت مورد استفاده قرار داد.

https://lawresearchmagazine.sbu.ac.ir/article_102694_9e29e6f7aec84570b7fbcc1311690ab3.pdf

دانشگاه شهید بهشتی فصلنامه تحقیقات حقوقی 1024-0772 28 2 2025 06 22 The Role of Comparative Law in Approving Iran’s Securities Market Act of 2005: A Case Study on Inside Information نقش حقوق تطبیقی در تصویب قانون بازار اوراق بهادار: مطالعه موردی اطلاعات نهانی 19 33 105185 10.48308/jlr.2024.236335.2765 FA حمیدرضا نیکبخت استاد، دانشکده حقوق، دانشگاه شهید بهشتی، تهران، ایران (نویسنده مسئول) hr-nikbakht@sbu.ac.ir فرهاد پیری دکتری، دانشکده حقوق، دانشگاه شهید بهشتی، تهران، ایران Journal Article 2024 07 19 Abstract The Securities Market Act of the Islamic Republic of Iran, enacted in 2005 (1384 AH), originates from extensive comparative legal research. Its foundational framework is notably influenced by, and to some extent reproduces, the “Model Law on the Securities Market” adopted in November 2001 by the Interparliamentary Assembly of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). It is important to note, however, that the CIS Model Law itself was born out of comparative legal studies. Consistent with this model-driven approach, the draft Iranian Act initially defined “insider information” as: “Internal information: any information related to securities or its issuer that may affect the trading of such securities, provided that it has not been disclosed to the public.” This definition draws heavily from Article 32(1) of the CIS Model Law, which states: “Insider information is any undisclosed information concerning securities, transactions involving such securities, or the issuer and its activities, the disclosure of which could significantly influence the market price of these securities.” However, a review of the legislative history of Iran’s Securities Market Act reveals that the final definition of “insider information” in Article 1(32) was ultimately based on, and aligned with, Article 1(1) of Directive 2003/6/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council, dated 28 January 2003, concerning insider dealing and market manipulation (market abuse), rather than paragraph 1 of Article 32 of the Model Law on the Securities Market of the Inter-Parliamentary Assembly of the Commonwealth of Independent States. Per Article 1(32) of the Securities Market Law of the Islamic Republic of Iran, “Inside information” is defined as “any information not disclosed to the public that directly or indirectly relates to securities, transactions, or their issuer and, if disclosed, would impact the price or the decision-making of investors regarding trading such securities.” With minor modifications, this provision essentially adopts the wording from Directive EC/6/2003, indicating Iran’s implicit reliance on European legal concepts and standards. Interpreting the Iranian legislation through the lens of EU regulation can provide valuable insights, especially considering that insider information is comprehensively addressed in Regulation (EU) No 596/2014 on market abuse. Leveraging this modern regulation offers a basis for aligning Iranian enforcement practices with international standards. Both Article 1(1) of Directive EC/6/2003 and Article 7(1)(a) of Regulation (EU) No 596/2014 define “insider information” as: “precise information which has not been made public, relating directly or indirectly to one or more issuers or financial instruments, and which, if made public, would likely have a significant effect on the prices of those financial instruments or relevant derivatives.” Ultimately, the capital market health is compromised by the abuse of insider information, which undermines investor confidence. The primary rationale underpinning securities regulation is the promotion of informational symmetry among market participants, enabling each investor to make informed decisions regarding the purchase or sale of securities. This objective relies on the premise that disclosed information must possess the capacity to influence security prices meaningfully. Consequently, laws pertaining to the capital market strictly prohibit the misuse of insider information. This study examines three core issues related to “inside information” through a comparative analysis of European Union law: (1) Constituent Elements of Insider Information: including “any undisclosed information of a precise nature,” “a direct or indirect relation to securities, transactions, or the issuer,” and “a significant effect on prices or investors’ decisions.” (2) The Affirmative Obligation to Disclose: encompassing “types of information requiring disclosure”—including periodic and ad hoc disclosures, “timing of disclosures,” “possibility of delay,” and “disclosure quality.” (3) Prohibition of Insider Information Abuse: addressing “types of prohibitions,” “persons subject to restrictions” (primary and secondary holders of insider information), and “the legal validity or invalidity of transactions based on insider misuse.” In conclusion, this analysis affirms that Iran’s approach of integrating foreign legal systems—particularly European Union norms—into the drafting of its Securities Market Act was largely successful. Nevertheless, effective comparative law application requires a nuanced understanding of domestic legal foundations and an avoidance of mechanical copying. This article is a clear example of practical application of comparative studies in enhancing regulation quality in capital market. Notably, where Iranian legislation did not explicitly mirror EU provisions on confidential information, corresponding directive regarding information disclosure for issuers registered with the Stock Exchange Organization—were subsequently incorporated into national instructions, therefore Iranian securities regulations are fully aligned with European documents. قانون بازار اوراق بهادار که در سال 1384 به تصویب رسید حاصل انجام مطالعات تطبیقی بود به نحوی که در تصویب آن، از مقررات مختلفی مانند مقررات اتحادیه اروپا، آمریکا، فرانسه و کشورهای اسلامی همچون ترکیه الهام گرفته شد. از جمله مقررات مندرج در این قانون که حاصل این مطالعات تطبیقی بود تعریف «اطلاعات نهانی» مندرج در بند سی و دو ماده 1 این قانون است که به موجب آن، مقرر شده است: «اطلاعات نهانی، هرگونه اطلاعات افشاء نشده برای عموم {است} که به طور مستقیم و یا غیرمستقیم به اوراق بهادار، معاملات یا ناشر آن مربوط می‌شود و در صورت انتشار بر قیمت و یا تصمیم سرمایه‌گذاران برای معامله اوراق بهادار مربوط تأثیر می‌گذارد». این متن، با یک تغییر جزئی، عیناً برگرفته از بند یک ماده 1 دستورالعمل شماره EC/6/2003 اتحادیه اروپا با عنوان «معاملات متکی بر اطلاعات نهانی و دستکاری بازار سرمایه» بوده است. از این رو، امکان تفسیر قانون ایران بر اساس مقررات سابق اتحادیه اروپا، راهگشا خواهد بود به ویژه آنکه اکنون، موضوع اطلاعات نهانی به طور مفصل در مقرره شماره 2014/596 اتحادیه اروپا با عنوان «سوء جریان بازار سرمایه» تصویب شده است و استفاده از این مقرره مؤخر برای تفسیر قانون بازار اوراق بهادار، می‌تواند نحوه اجرای قانون ایران را به مقررات روز دنیا، نزدیک نماید.

https://lawresearchmagazine.sbu.ac.ir/article_105185_e97bc794c68edf870f16f5a3ff1afb0d.pdf

دانشگاه شهید بهشتی فصلنامه تحقیقات حقوقی 1024-0772 28 2 2025 06 22 The Position of Customary International Law in the Interpretation of Treaties جایگاه حقوق بین الملل عرفی در تفسیر معاهدات 35 54 104294 10.48308/jlr.2024.233293.2600 FA محمود حجار گروه حقوق بین الملل عمومی، دانشگاه علامه طباطبائی، تهران، ایران. سید قاسم زمانی استاد دانشکده حقوق و علوم سیاسی دانشگاه علامه طباطبائی، تهران، ایران. Journal Article 2023 09 30 Abstract Undoubtedly, international treaties are one of the most important sources of international law and have a special place in international law due to their stability, clarity, and precision in proving and explaining the obligations of the parties. However, it can be said that despite the great care and attention taken by negotiators when drafting treaty provisions, there is no treaty that does not raise some issues regarding treaty interpretation, especially as each state tries to interpret the treaty in accordance with its national interests. According to Article 31(1) of the Convention on the Law of Treaties, a treaty must be interpreted in accordance with the ordinary meaning given to the terms of the treaty in their context and having regard to the subject matter and purpose of the treaty.Therefore, in many cases, it is sufficient to consider the ordinary meaning of treaty terms in their context and with regard to the subject matter and purpose for interpreting treaty provisions and terms .However, in some cases, the text of the treaty may not be sufficient to interpret the terms of the treaty, and the interpreter needs to refer to other rules outside the text of the treaty being interpreted (including customary international law) in order to properly carry out the interpretation process. The relationship between the treaty and other relevant rules of international law, including customary international law, is of particular importance. In this context, the relevant rules of international law can affect the treaty in various aspects; one of these important aspects is its effect on the interpretation of the treaty. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to explain the role of customary international law in the interpretation of treaties. In this paper, by using library sources, international documents, and international judicial decisions and through a descriptive-analytical method, the position of the rules of customary international law in the interpretation of treaties will be studied. Article 31(3)(c) of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties states that in the interpretation of a treaty, together with the context, “any relevant rules of international law applicable in the relations between the parties” shall be taken into account. Therefore, in interpreting a treaty, in addition to its text and context and other elements of the general rule of interpretation contained in Article 31 of the Convention on the Law of Treaties, the rules of customary international law must also be taken into account. It seems that the importance of Article 31(3)(c) of the Convention on the Law of Treaties stems from the fact that it refers to the relationship between the provisions of the treaty and other relevant rules of international law. Therefore, Article 31(3)(c) is related to the issue of “systemic integration” in the international legal system. The principle of systemic integration means that treaties must be interpreted and implemented within the framework of international law and that the spirit of the rules of international law must always govern them. It is worth noting that, according to the general rule of interpretation provided for in Article 31 of the Vienna Convention, the text of the treaty is the starting point of the interpretation process. However, relevant rules of international law, including customary international law, must be considered in context. Hence, the rules of customary international law play an auxiliary or secondary role in the interpretation of treaties. In other words, the treaty being interpreted retains the primary role in the interpretation process. On the other hand, it seems that in the process of interpreting a treaty, the interpreter must consider the customary rule applicable in the relations between the parties. This means that an interpretative authority does not have the right to exercise discretion but must consider customary law. According to Article 31(3)(c) of the Convention on the Law of Treaties, in order to take into account, the rules of customary international law in the process of interpreting a treaty, the customary rules must both be relevant to the treaty under interpretation and applicable in the relations between the parties to the treaty under interpretation. Therefore, it can be said that customary rules can include general, regional, or local custom. The use of customary international law rules in the process of interpreting treaties is of particular importance because it can clarify the ambiguous meaning of treaty terms or determine the scope of treaty provisions. Furthermore, taking into account the rules of customary international law in the treaty interpretation process helps to prevent the interpretation and application of a treaty as an independent regime. Therefore, it reduces the fragmentation of international law and promotes systemic integration in the international legal system. International jurisprudence has played an important role in explaining the position of customary international law rules in the interpretation of treaties. International judicial authorities have referred to the rules of customary international law applicable to the relations between the parties, especially when the terms used in the treaty are ambiguous or have a well-known meaning in customary international law, or to take into account the principle of systemic integration. حقوق بین‌الملل عرفی و معاهدات از مهم‌ترین منابع حقوق بین‌الملل محسوب می‌شوند و مناسبات میان آنها از اهمیت ویژه‌ای برخوردار است. در این زمینه، حقوق بین‌الملل عرفی از جنبه‌های مختلف بر معاهدات تأثیر می‌گذارد؛ یکی از این جنبه‌های مهم، تأثیر آن بر تفسیر معاهدات است. طبق جزء ج بند 3 ماده 31 کنوانسیون وین، در تفسیر یک معاهده، همراه با سیاق، هر قاعده ذی‌ربط حقوق بین‌الملل قابل‌اجرا در روابط میان طرفین نیز باید در نظر گرفته شود. پرسش اصلی مقاله این است که جایگاه قواعد حقوق بین‌الملل عرفی در تفسیر معاهدات چیست؟ به نظر می‌رسد که در نظر گرفتن قواعد حقوق بین‌الملل عرفی در فرایند تفسیر معاهده به جلوگیری از تفسیر و اجرای یک معاهده به‌عنوان یک رژیم مستقل کمک می‌کند. بنابراین، چندپارگی حقوق بین‌الملل را کاهش می‌دهد و یکپارچگی سیستمیک در نظام حقوقی بین‌المللی را ارتقا می‌دهد. در این مقاله با بهره‌گیری از منابع کتابخانه‌ای، اسناد بین‌المللی و آرای قضائی بین‌المللی و با استفاده از روش توصیفی–تحلیلی، جایگاه قواعد حقوق بین‌الملل عرفی در تفسیر معاهدات مورد بررسی و مداقه قرار می‌گیرد

https://lawresearchmagazine.sbu.ac.ir/article_104294_3cf84188e1cb19cdaaac94ba25ad6dc7.pdf

دانشگاه شهید بهشتی فصلنامه تحقیقات حقوقی 1024-0772 28 2 2025 06 22 Analysis of the Mortgage System of Ships Under Construction in Iranian and English Law تبیین نظام ترهین کشتی در حال ساخت در حقوق ایران و انگلیس 55 76 105781 10.48308/jlr.2025.238827.2860 FA عباس قاسمی حامد استاد، دانشکده حقوق، دانشگاه شهید بهشتی، تهران، ایران (نویسنده مسئول) gh-hamed@sbu.ac.ir حیدر خلیل زاده دانشجوی دکتری، دانشکده حقوق، دانشگاه شهید بهشتی، تهران، ایران Journal Article 2025 02 23 Shipping is a capital-intensive industry and is widely regarded as a hallmark of developed economies. However, securing financing for shipbuilding orders presents one of the most significant challenges for both shipyards and shipowners as buyers. On the one hand, investors typically extend financial facilities only upon receiving sufficient and reliable guarantees for the repayment of principal and interest. On the other hand, those seeking financing tend to utilize the construction project itself as collateral to maximize the credit secured. Consequently, mortgaging ships under construction has become a desirable and essential method to ensure the repayment of principal and interest associated with the financing of vessel construction. The Iranian Maritime Act recognizes a vessel under construction—prior to its completion and launching—as having the status of a ship and accepts its mortgage as a maritime mortgage, despite lacking detailed regulations or specific criteria pertaining to this process. This research underscores that a maritime mortgage constitutes an independent contractual arrangement and is not merely a subdivision of civil law mortgage contracts. It concludes that, for maritime mortgages—including those on vessels under construction—formal registration of the lien is a prerequisite for validity. However, given the peculiar nature and specific requirements of this field, the delivery of the vessel is not a condition for the validity of such liens. This study further demonstrates that the Maritime Act’s current solution—limiting the remedy for default to judicial sale—is misaligned with industry needs and warrants revision. Failure to register a ship results in the removal of the mortgage from the scope of maritime law regulations. Moreover, dual registration of vessels emerges as an additional obstacle to mortgage enforcement. Iranian maritime law currently lacks explicit provisions in this regard; once a ship is registered within Iranian jurisdiction, it is considered an Iranian vessel regardless of whether it was previously registered elsewhere. Furthermore, conflicts of law—in particular, diverging national interpretations of priority rights and privileges—pose significant obstacles to the enforcement and realization of remedies. Under conflict of laws principles, the law of the court executing the auction and judgment assumes jurisdiction, which may differ from Iranian law, potentially affecting the priority hierarchy and rights recognition. Additionally, sanctions imposed on banking and shipping sectors can impede the full enforcement and continuity of maritime mortgages, Contrastingly, under English maritime law, a vessel under construction is not recognized as a ship until the completion and delivery to the buyer, and therefore, it is not subject to the provisions of the Merchant Shipping Act 1995. Nevertheless, mortgaging such vessels remains feasible under common law principles of personal property and equitable doctrines, often through two separate mortgages grounded in common law and equity, rather than maritime mortgage regulations. These alternative legal mechanisms warrant further examination. کشتیرانی صنعتی هزینه‌بر و از شاخصه‌های توسعه‌یافتگی هر کشوری محسوب می‌شود. بااین‌حال، تأمین منابع مالی برای سفارش ساخت کشتی از مهم‌ترین چالش‌های یاردهای سازنده و سفارش‌دهندگان به‌عنوان خریدار محسوب می‌شود. ازطرفی سرمایه‌گذاران تسهیلات مالی را مشروط به اخذ تضمین‌های مطمئن و کافی برای بازپرداخت اصل و سود، به متقاضیان اعطا می‌کنند و از طرف دیگر، تأمین مالی‌‌شوندگان نیز تمایل دارند تا حد امکان از خود پروژه ساخت، به‌عنوان تضمین و ترهین برای تأمین اعتبار موردنیاز استفاده کنند. بدین‌سان، ترهین خود کشتی درحال ساخت به‌عنوان شیوه‌ای مطلوب و ضروری برای تضمین بازپرداخت اصل و سود اعتبار تأمین‌شده به‌منظور ساخت شناور، مورد توجه قرار گرفته‌ است. قانون دریایی ایران به شناور تحت ساخت قبل از اتمام و به آب انداختن، عنوان کشتی را اطلاق نموده و رهن آن را در قالب رهن دریایی پذیرفته است، بدون آنکه مقررات تفصیلی و ضوابط مشخصی دراین‌خصوص مقرر کند. این پژوهش ضمن تأکید بر اینکه رهن دریایی عقدی مستقل و قسیم عقد رهن ‌نیست، نتیجه می‌گیرد در رهن دریایی از جمله رهن کشتی درحال‌ ساخت، الزام ثبت رسمی رهن، شرط صحت به‌حساب می‌آید. بااین‌حال، به‌دلیل ماهیت و اقتضائات این حوزه، قبض از شرایط صحت این نوع رهن در نظر گرفته نمی‌شود. این پژوهش نشان می‌دهد راهکار قانون دریایی در فرض تخلف راهن، که فقط فروش از طریق دادگاه است، با نیاز این صنعت همخوانی ندارد و نیازمند بازنگری است. مطالعه تطبیقی موضوع در حقوق انگلیس نشان داد براساس قانون کشتیرانی تجاری، شناور درحال‌ ساخت تا قبل از اتمام و تحویل به خریدار به‌عنوان کشتی مورد شناسایی قرار نگرفته، از قانون کشتیرانی تجاری انگلیس تبعیت نمی‌کند. بااین‌حال، رهن شناور درحال‌ ساخت در این کشور براساس نظام اموال منقول و دو رهن مبتنی‌بر کامنلا و انصاف به‌جای رهن دریایی میسر است که مورد مطالعه قرار گرفته است

https://lawresearchmagazine.sbu.ac.ir/article_105781_71b437b4d6b9ddd5d722c5043987fe83.pdf

دانشگاه شهید بهشتی فصلنامه تحقیقات حقوقی 1024-0772 28 2 2025 06 22 Legislative Criminal Policy to Deal with Economic Violence Against Women in International Documents سیاست جنایی تقنینی مقابله با خشونت اقتصادی علیه زن در اسناد بین‌المللی 77 96 103970 10.48308/jlr.2023.231089.2472 FA امیر وطنی استادیار، دانشکده حقوق و علوم سیاسی، دانشگاه خوارزمی، تهران، ایران فرید محسنی استاد، دانشکده حقوق، دانشگاه علوم قضایی، تهران، ایران زهرا سادات غمامی دکتری، دانشکده حقوق و علوم سیاسی، دانشگاه خوارزمی، تهران، ایران (نویسنده مسئول) std_ghamami@khu.ac.ir Journal Article 2023 04 09 Economic violence against women is one of the issues that has recently been highlighted in international law. International institutions have defined and determined relevant strategic laws on this issue and have developed a comprehensive legal framework for all countries by preparing and approving a set of documents and policies. The majority of international documents, research and articles regarding gender-based violence have focused on physical, sexual and psychological violence, and economic violence against women has been less discussed and examined in the literature of Iran and international law. However, these documents have designed a coherent set of definitions and measures to combat economic violence so that all countries can comprehensively reflect and implement these policies in their legal systems. Since the founding of the United Nations on October 24, 1945, promoting women's rights and creating an equal space for them has been on the agenda of the United Nations. The UN Center for Ending Violence against Women initially defined economic violence against women as the restriction of access to financial resources by a partner; however, this definition has been expanded to include any restriction that prevents economic gain or leads to economic harm, such as restricting access to financial resources, education, labor markets, and health care services. The importance of this phenomenon - economic violence against women- and its adverse consequences led to the adoption of various measures at the international level to prevent and combat it. The Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women adopted in 1979, the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women in 1993, the Beijing Platform for Action, the outcome of the Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995, and the Sustainable Development Goals in 2015 are also among the most important documents in combating economic violence against women. These documents include measures such as right to property and right to access financial resources, education, health, and employment, which provide a specific criminal policy to combat economic violence against women. The extraction of this policy is the main question of this research.Violence and its types are a phenomenon that has various definitions and examples from different perspectives. In international documents, economic violence is considered based on the principles of western schools, and therefore, in order to prevent this issue, freedom and equality of women and men and emphasis and encouragement of women's economic activity for their own economic security have been considered. Western legal schools and international documents accuse the Iranian legal system, which is based on Islam, of discrimination against women, violation of their rights, and creating the conditions for the occurrence of economic violence against women; therefore, it is necessary to extract and analyze the criminal policy of combating economic violence in international documents so that in future research, it is possible to measure its relationship with the criminal policy of Islam and Iran. Identifying and extracting the criminal policy of international documents on the issue of combating economic violence against women will meet the need of managers and decision-makers of the country to adopt intelligent measures in dealing with international documents. This research collects relevant data from international documents and articles about it by studying documents and books, then uses descriptive and analytical methods to identify and extract the legislative criminal policy to combat economic violence in international documents. The results of the criminal policy review to combat economic violence against women indicate that its components can be classified into 6 sections: criminalization of economic violence against women, recognition of women's property rights, women's equality in financial rights with men, access to employment, access to education, and access to health services, as follows. International documents such as the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women and the Beijing Document have explicitly requested governments to consider any violence against women a crime. In these documents, the right to property is the most important economic right of women that has been emphasized. Women's equal financial rights in accessing financial services, resources, and economic opportunities, without any distinction or restriction based on gender, have been emphasized in international documents, especially in the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women in 1979. Equality of women and men in access to employment, equal status and treatment between women and men in the labor market, the achievement of decent, full and gainful employment for all women and men, and the realization of equal pay for work of equal value, are mentioned as components that make employment and the labor market accessible to all on equal terms. Gender equality and equal rights of women and men in access to education are explicitly emphasized. In these documents, the enjoyment of health services at the highest standard without any discrimination is introduced as one of the fundamental rights of every human being, and health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Documents such as the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and the 2030 Agenda provide special protection for women in some cases regarding access to health services. خشونت اقتصادی علیه زنان، مساله‌ای است که اخیراً در عرصه حقوق بین‌الملل مطرح شده و مجموعه‌ای از اسناد و سیاست ها در خصوص آن توسط سازمان‌ها بین‌المللی تصویب شده است. در این اسناد مجموعه منسجمی از تعاریف و تدابیر مقابله با خشونت اقتصادی تدوین شده که در مجموع تلاش می‌شود این سیاست‌ها به صورت فراگیر در جوامع اجرا شود. شناسایی و استخراج سیاست جنایی اسناد بین‌المللی در موضوع مقابله با خشونت اقتصادی علیه زن، نیاز مدیران و تصمیم‌گیران کشور برای اتخاذ تدابیر هوشمندانه در مواجهه با اسناد بین المللی را رفع خواهد کرد. این پژوهش با مطالعه اسناد و کتب، داده‌های مرتبط را از اسناد بین‌المللی و مقالات پیرامون آن گردآوری می‌کند، سپس با روش توصیفی و تحلیلی به شناسایی و استخراج سیاست جنایی تقنینی مقابله با خشونت اقتصادی در اسناد بین‌المللی می‌پردازد. نتایج تحقیق نشان میدهد تدابیر موجود سیاست جنایی در قبال این مسأله را در 6 دسته می‌توان طبقه‌بندی کرد: (1)‌جرم انگاری خشونت اقتصادی علیه زنان، (2)‌به رسمیت شناختن حق مالکیت زنان، (3)‌برابری زنان در حقوق مالی با مردان، (4)‌دسترسی به اشتغال، (5)‌دسترسی به آموزش و (6)‌دسترسی به خدمات سلامت. گرچه در این تدابیر برخی حمایت‌های خاص در راستای تسهیل دسترسی به اشتغال و خدمات بهداشتی در نظر گرفته شده است؛ اما عمده تدابیر در جهت برابری کامل زن و مرد در نظام قانونگذاری، محیط خانواده، اشتغال، تحصیل، درمان و غیره است.

https://lawresearchmagazine.sbu.ac.ir/article_103970_798e8652cd518d542d1b1afbdf82ec6f.pdf

دانشگاه شهید بهشتی فصلنامه تحقیقات حقوقی 1024-0772 28 2 2025 06 22 Early Neutral Evaluation: A New and Practical Alternative Dispute Resolution ارزیابی اولیه بیطرفانه ثمره دعوی: شیوه‌ای نوین و کاربردی در حل و فصل غیر قضایی اختلافات 97 117 102921 10.48308/jlr.2022.228347.2287 FA مریم داراب پور دانشجوی دکتری حقوق خصوصی، دانشگاه آزاداسلامی واحد تهران شمال،تهران،ایران. 0000-0000-0000-0001 مهراب داراب پور استاد، دانشکده حقوق، دانشگاه شهید بهشتی، تهران، ایران (نویسنده مسئول) m_darabpour@sbu.ac.ir نوید رهبر استادیار، دانشکده حقوق، دانشگاه شهید بهشتی، تهران، ایران مجتبی اصغریان استادیار، دانشکده حقوق و علوم سیاسی، دانشگاه خوارزمی، تهران، ایران Journal Article 2022 08 17 With technological advancements and the emergence of new contracts and properties, the nature of legal disputes has evolved significantly. Traditional dispute resolution methods are often insufficient to meet contemporary demands. Parties increasingly seek solutions that are not only faster and more cost-effective but also capable of safeguarding social interests and assets. In this context, Early Neutral Evaluation (ENE) has gained prominence as an innovative and alternative means of dispute resolution. By providing an impartial and evidence-based assessment of the likely outcome, ENE assists parties in gaining a realistic understanding of their legal positions prior to engaging in judicial or arbitration proceedings. Consequently, this approach enhances the probability of reconciliation. The aim of this research is to examine the underlying philosophy, process, and functions of ENE within dispute resolution frameworks, with particular emphasis on its application in the field of intellectual property. This study adopts an analytical and descriptive approach to explore the structure and core elements of ENE. Initially, the theoretical foundations and philosophy of the method are discussed. Subsequently, using both domestic and international legal sources, the implementation process of ENE and the role of the evaluator are elucidated. In addition, through analyzing sample cases and leading countries regulations, benefits and challenges of this method compared to other ADR mechanisms are examined. The study details the characteristics required of neutral evaluators, the selection procedures, and the necessary conditions for the effective deployment of ENE. The findings reveal that ENE's high flexible nature allows it to be applicable across a broad spectrum of disputes—from simple to complex cases. The method proves particularly effective in resolving disputes related to intellectual property rights, contracts, construction, and cases demanding technical and legal expertise. Compared to traditional litigation, ENE offers a more economical and time-efficient alternative, enabling parties to make informed, rational decisions based on a clear understanding of their case's strengths and weaknesses. Participation in ENE requires mutual consent from all parties, with the selection of a competent, neutral evaluator playing a critical role in its success. Beyond legal expertise, the evaluator must possess the ability to analyze issues impartially and decisively, maintain independence, and uphold complete neutrality. One notable advantage of ENE is its capacity to reduce the volume of court and arbitration caseloads, thereby facilitating better dispute management and decreasing social and economic costs. When parties harbor false confidence in their legal position and alternative dispute resolution methods are unlikely to reach compromise, ENE offers a realistic assessment of probable outcomes, paving the way for agreement and reconciliation. Compared to mediation, ENE emphasizes legal analysis and outcome prediction rather than consensus-building. Unlike mediators, who seek mutually agreeable solutions, neutrals solely evaluate rights and obligations based on evidence, documentation, and applicable law. This approach enhances the credibility and reliability of the assessment, often serving as a solid foundation for compromise and reconciliation. Additional important finding include the role of the careful drafting of ENE agreements, clear identification of issues and transparency throughout the process, and full cooperation of the parties, including provision of relevant documents and evidence is required condition for this process success. In multi-party disputes, evaluators must consider the interests and legal rights of all participants and deliver their assessments with unwavering neutrality. Overall, ENE represents a novel and efficient dispute resolution tool, especially in the realm of intellectual property. It offers a viable alternative to traditional litigation and some conventional ADR methods by increasing procedural speed, reducing costs, and enhancing party satisfaction. Its role in managing disputes and alleviating pressure on judicial systems underscores its strategic importance. Given the growing acceptance of ENE in various legal jurisdictions, fostering its development within the Iranian legal system could significantly promote justice and boost the efficiency of dispute resolution mechanisms توسعۀ فناوری و ظهور مالکیت‌ها و قراردادهای جدید که پیش از این شناخته‌شده نبوده‌اند، نوع اختلافات حادث را نیز متفاوت کرده است. در رفع اختلافات، الزاماً روش‌های سنتی پاسخگو نیستند و حتی برخی روش‌های مرسومِ جایگزینِ حل‌وفصل اختلافات نیز ممکن است طرفین را به نحو رضایت‌مندی به مقصود نرسانند. در این مرحله از بروز اختلاف، ارزیابی بی‌طرفانۀ قضایی، علمی و فنی اولیه از ثمرۀ دعوا به‌عنوان شیوه‌ای جایگزین در حل‌وفصل اختلافات، که از این پس «ارزیابی بی‌طرفانه» نامگذاری می‌شود، شیوه‌ای کارآمد و گزینه‌ای مناسب و مفید محسوب می‌شود. اگر لازم باشد ترتیبی برای روش‌های جایگزین حل‌وفصل اختلافات منظور گردد، ارزیابی بی‌طرفانه به‌طور مسلم قبل از مراجعه به دادگاه یا حداقل قبل از صدور رأی آن مرجع، و به‌طور معمول، قبل از ورود به میانجیگری و داوری و کارشناسی است و زمانی که مطرح می‌شود، ارزیابی بی‌طرفانه برای حل‌وفصل بسیاری از اختلافات، به‌ویژه اختلافات مالکیت آفرینش‌های فکری گزینۀ مناسبی به شمار می‌آید؛ چراکه بیشتر اختلافات از تصور اشتباه طرفین نسبت به حقوق خود ایجاد می‌شود و طرفین خود را به اندازه‌ای محق می‌دانند که مذاکره و مشاوره و حتی میانجیگری راه به جایی نمی‌برد و تا طرفین وارد رسیدگی حقوقی (رسیدگی قضایی یا داوری) نشوند، تصویری واقعی از حق‌مداری یا بی‌حقی یکی از آنها پیدا نمی‌شود. پس لازم است که روش «ارزیابی بی‌طرفانه» که اطمینان و یقین و درنتیجه انعطاف بیشتری برای طرفین به وجود می‌آورد، به‌طور جدی مورد توجه و استفادۀ مفید قرار گیرد.

https://lawresearchmagazine.sbu.ac.ir/article_102921_245e3b2e482019be1e542a146441f080.pdf

دانشگاه شهید بهشتی فصلنامه تحقیقات حقوقی 1024-0772 28 2 2025 06 22 The interaction between Iranian criminal policy makers and Bar lawyers' associations میان کنش سیاست گذاران جنایی ایران با کانون های وکیلان دادگستری 117 136 104272 10.48308/jlr.2024.234599.2670 FA امیرحسن نیازپور . دانشیار، دانشکده حقوق، دانشگاه شهید بهشتی، تهران، ایران a_niazpour@sbu.ac.ir Journal Article 2024 01 26 Abstract Crime is a phenomenon that has a long history in human life and has always been considered one of the most prominent public issues. Accordingly, a solution must be found in the public policy-making process. After all, public policy-making is a process within which actions and reactions related to public issues/challenges are identified in a targeted manner. The public policy-making process is based on a series of principles, of which the government's activism, the use of social institutions, and the knowledge-based nature of policies are of great importance. The principle of using social institutions is one of the most prominent of them. According to this principle, the government must, in addition to using the capacities and facilities of government institutions, also use the power of social institutions in the policy-making process. In the realm of Iranian criminal policy-making, several institutions, especially the Islamic Parliament of I.R.Iran, the judiciary, as well as the executive branch and the Expediency Council, have duties and powers in this regard. Nevertheless, in the criminal policy-making process, it is also necessary to pay attention to the principles of benefiting from social institutions and the knowledge-based nature of policies. The application of these principles by government criminal policy-makers provides the basis for using the capacity of several institutions, of which the Bar Associations are among the most prominent. In this institution, according to the aforementioned legal bill, law graduates, faculty members of law schools, judicial officers, and a number of other people with experience in the field of law can act. This policy, which is foreseen in Article 8 of the aforementioned bill, has given the Bar Associations a wide capacity to play a role in the criminal policy-making process. The interaction between bar associations and criminal policy makers in the field of crime prevention and criminal responses application manner is rooted in a number of fundamental rights. The formulation of a proper criminal policy is one of the most fundamental rights of individuals. Therefore, and in light of the aforementioned right, criminal policy makers must, through a systematic process, anticipate the most effective actions and responses to reduce the number of criminal behaviors. The procedural aspect of this right is reflected in the use of the capacities of government and social institutions, as well as the adoption of a knowledge-based approach. The aforementioned institution, which benefits from lawyers and uses their scientific capacities and expertise within the framework of several commissions such as the Codification and Law Commission or the Legal Affairs Commission, can in principle be effective in identifying public issues as well as the approaches of society and public opinion to the policies adopted. However, the existential aspect of this right concerns how to anticipate actions and responses to control the criminal phenomenon. In this context, criminal policy makers should use the capacity of social institutions to systematically examine crime and identify appropriate methods to reduce it. Among these, the Bar Associations are among the most important institutions that can play a role in understanding and analyzing public opinion regarding adopted and implemented criminal policies, as well as identifying appropriate methods to curb crime and, in fact, in anticipating preventive and counterproductive responses, by having skilled and thinker lawyers. In 1954, a significant legal event occurred through the approval of the bill on the independence of the Bar Association. In light of this, for the first time, the independence of this institution from the judiciary was recognized. Accordingly, the aforementioned associations, which previously had to follow the policies of the judiciary, have acquired a separate position and have found the opportunity to, on the one hand, regulate behaviors that undermine the values of the legal profession, and on the other hand, independently evaluate and make recommendations regarding adopted legal policies, including criminal policies. Accordingly, criminal policymakers should use this institution separately from other institutions related to crime in the process of adopting policies regarding actions and reactions that curb criminal phenomena. This approach, in addition to Article 1 of the aforementioned bill, has been taken into account in Article 69 of the executive regulations of the bill on the independence of the Bar Association, as amended in 2023. Accordingly, lawyers must take an oath to refrain from "...acting on political and personal ideologies, hatred, and revenge..." However, although a number of norms have been foreseen in the Iranian legal system for the participation of this institution in the criminal policy-making process, the use of the power of the aforementioned institution in this field faces numerous challenges. These include the lack of appropriate norms for the necessity of using the Bar Association, the lack of belief in the expertise-oriented power of the Bar Associations, the identification of a strategy for state-owned bar institutions, the lack of active participation of the Bar Associations in the criminal policy-making process, the lack of dynamic structures in the Bar Associations for criminal policy-making, and the lack of belief in government institutions to use the capacity of the Bar Associations. To properly utilize the participation and power of this institution in the criminal policy-making process, steps must be taken to formulate macro policies that will benefit from the capacity of the Bar Associations, anticipate the norms that must be followed for using the capacity of the Bar Associations in the criminal policy-making process, integrate the Bar Associations into criminal policy-making institutions, establish a criminal policy commission in the Bar Associations, convince government institutions to use the capacity of community institutions in criminal policy-making, and ensure the principle of independence of the Bar Associations. فرآیند سیاست گذاری جنایی که به تدوین سیاست های مهارکننده بزهکاری با رویکردهای کنش و واکنش مدارانه می انجامد، بر سلسله ای از اصول استوار است. میانوندی نهادهای جامعوی در فرآیند مذکور از برجسته ترین این اصول است. از رهگذر آن سیاست گذاران جنایی باید از ظرفیت های تخصص مدارانه این نهادها در سرتاسر فرآیند یاد شده استفاده نمایند. در این میان، کانون های وکیلان دادگستری از ظرفیت و تخصص ساختاری و کارگزاران کاردان برخوردارند. در نظام حقوقی ایران مشارکت این نهاد در فرآیند سیاست گذاری جنایی با چالش های متعددی روبه روست.نبود هنجارهای مناسب برای بایدی بودن استفاده از کانون وکیلان دادگستری، نبود باورمندی نسبت به توان تخصص مدارانه این نهاد، شناسایی راهبرد دولتی کردن نهاد وکالت، کنش گر نبودن این نهاد در فرآیند سیاست گذاری جنایی، نبود ساختارهای پویا در نهاد مذکور برای سیاست گذاری جنایی و نبود باور در نهادهای دولتی برای استفاده از ظرفیت کانون های وکیلان دادگستری از آن جمله هستند. برای استفاده شایسته از مشارکت و توان این نهاد در فرآیند سیاست گذاری جنایی باید در راستای تدوین سیاست های کلاندر زمینه بهره جستن از ظرفیت کانون های وکیلان دادگستری، پیش بینی هنجارهای باید برای استفاده از ظرفیت کانون های وکیلان دادگستری در فرآیند سیاست گذاری جنایی، هموند نمودن کانون های وکیلان دادگستری در نهادهای سیاست گذار جنایی، راه اندازی کمیسیون سیاست جنایی در کانون های وکیلان دادگستری، باورمند نمودن نهادهای دولتی نسبت به استفاده از ظرفیت نهادهای جامعوی در سیاست گذاری جنایی و تضمین اصل استقلال کانون های وکیلان دادگستری گام برداشت.

https://lawresearchmagazine.sbu.ac.ir/article_104272_d82f627700bf9d00531a013573bf32de.pdf

دانشگاه شهید بهشتی فصلنامه تحقیقات حقوقی 1024-0772 28 2 2025 06 22 The Evolution of Green Technologies Transfer's mechanisms in Environmental Treaties with a Glance at the Role of COPs تکامل سازوکارهای انتقال فناوری های سبز در معاهدات زیست محیطی با نگاهی بر نقش کنفرانس اعضا 137 156 104805 10.48308/jlr.2022.225598.2089 FA زهرا محمودی کردی دانشیار، دانشکده حقوق و علوم سیاسی، دانشگاه مازندران، بابلسر، ایران (نویسنده مسئول) z.mahmoudi@umz.ac.ir 0000-0002-8126-9356 سید سجاد حسینی دامیری دانشجوی دکتری، دانشکده حقوق، دانشگاه شهید بهشتی، تهران، ایران Journal Article 2022 01 25 Environmental protection requires the participation and cooperation of most countries because the non-cooperation of some countries causes the efforts of others to fail; so the content of environmental agreements should persuade such countries to accept and implement the obligations. Commitment to transfer green technologies in most environmental agreements has long been envisaged in different terms, and it aims to help states parties, especially developing ones, to protect and reach a level of environmental protection that no longer uses polluting and unstable industrial methods. Undoubtedly, the technology transfer system envisaged in a collective environmental agreement and, more importantly, the mechanisms for its implementation are effective to achieve these goals. The present article examines the evolution of green technology transfer and the role of the conference of parties in creating and improving transfer mechanisms. The finding of the paper is that the Conference of the Parties to the Environmental Treaties has led to the evolution, sustainability, and dynamism of the technology transfer regime through the establishment of financial, executive, and regulatory mechanisms and institutions as implementing the provisions of the treaty on the transfer of green technology. حفاظت از محیط زیست نیازمند مشارکت و همکاری اکثر کشورهاست چرا که عدم همکاری تعدادی از کشورها سبب می شود که تلاش سایرین نیز به ثمر ننشیند و لذا محتوای موافقتنامه‌های زیست محیطی نیز باید به گونه ای باشد که کشورها را به پذیرش و اجرای تعهدات مندرج ترغیب نماید. تعهد به انتقال فناوری‌های سبز در اغلب موافقتنامه‌های زیست محیطی از دیرباز تا کنون با عبارت پردازی‌های متفاوت پیش بینی شده و هدف آن کمک به کشورهای عضو به ویژه کشورهای در حال توسعه جهت حفاظت از محیط زیست و دست یافتن این کشورها به مرتبه ای از توسعه یافتگی است که دیگر از روش‌های آلاینده و ناپایدار صنعتی استفاده ننمایند. بی‌شک یکی از ابزارهایی‌که می‌تواند در تحقق هدف فوق موثر واقع شود، نظام انتقال فناوری پیش‌بینی شده در یک موافقتنامه زیست محیطی جمعی و از آن مهمتر سازوکارهای عملیاتی شدن آن است. مقاله حاضر ضمن بررسی سیر تکامل انتقال فناوری های سبز، نقش نهاد کنفرانس اعضاء را در ایجاد و بهبود سازوکارهای انتقال مورد بررسی قرار می‌دهد. یافته مقاله این است که کنفرانس اعضاء معاهدات زیست‌محیطی، از طریق ایجاد سازوکارها و نهادهای مالی ، اجرایی و نظارتی ضمن عملیاتی کردن مفاد معاهده در رابطه با انتقال فناوری سبز، باعث تکامل، دوام و پویایی رژیم انتقال فناوری شده‌ است.

https://lawresearchmagazine.sbu.ac.ir/article_104805_eb166fcbf42f6c3d905ef0d33b1b5a9f.pdf

دانشگاه شهید بهشتی فصلنامه تحقیقات حقوقی 1024-0772 28 2 2025 06 22 The foundational principles of contract law in the Common law (with emphasis on English and American law) اصول اساسی حقوق قراردادها در نظام حقوقی کامن‌لا (با تأکید بر حقوق انگلیس و آمریکا) 157 180 104217 10.48308/jlr.2024.232411.2544 FA فاطمه فرهان فر دانشجوی دکتری، دانشکده حقوق، دانشگاه تهران: پردیس فارابی، قم، ایران (نویسنده مسئول) fa.farhan1987@gmail.com جلیل قنواتی دانشیار، دانشکده حقوق، دانشگاه تهران: پردیس فارابی، قم، ایران Journal Article 2023 08 22 Abstract Legal principles, as a priori norms accepted within society, constitute the foundational pillars of the legal system. These abstract and absolute norms enjoy a superior normative status over specific legal rules and are formally recognized through legislative or judicial processes (e.g., recognition by legislators or courts). This study aims to examine four fundamental principles of contract law within the common law framework—namely, freedom of contract, contractual security, justice, and efficiency. Its primary objective is to analyze their roles and statuses in England and the United States of America through a comparative review of judicial precedents and statutory laws, highlighting their interplay and inherent limitations within the legal system. The principle of freedom of contract, as the cornerstone of contract law, grants parties autonomy to determine the content, terms, form, and even the governing law of their agreements, based on mutual consent. Nonetheless, this freedom is inherently constrained by competing imperatives of justice and societal welfare. Legal systems— by means of oversight of unfair terms, consumer protection, and recognition of third-party rights—are trying to balance individual liberty with public interest. Far from merely displaying human will power, this principle also shows legal system's duty to prevent abuse of contractual freedom. The principle of contractual security ensures the stability and predictability of contracts. This principal is rooted in doctrines like pacta sunt servanda (the binding nature of contracts), good faith, mutual cooperation, and access to effective remedies; in the case of contractual breach. Key elements underpinning contractual security include enforceability, good will and cooperation, the right to performance, and availability of equitable rem and pro-contract approach. In common law the obligation of contracts does not inherently demand specific performance unless it contains inadequate damages and no suitable substitute exists. Courts exercise restraint when specific performance leads to oppressive enforcement outcomes or violations of individual liberties. Pro-contract approach emphasizes on preserving contractual relationships even in difficult situations or contractual gaps. Contract interpretive principles, granting the authority of balancing contracts to the courts and inferring implied terms are all with the purpose of gap-filling and preventing contract dissolution. Central to this approach is the presumption that contracts should endure unless termination is necessary to protect legitimate interests or prevent unjust harm. While contract performance is critical for one of the parties or dissolution leades to unfair loss, the principle of preserving contract preceeds the termination. Where contract is divisible and partial defects—such as fraudulent clauses, mutual mistake, or duress—taint it, courts may sever the offending provisions while upholding the remainder, thereby preserving contractual equilibrium and avoiding total invalidation. The principle of contractual justice is grounded in equitable treatment in analogous cases, the prohibition of exploitative practices toward disadvantaged parties, and the protection of vulnerable stakeholders. This manifests in doctrines such as reciprocity of obligations, rescission of contracts obtained under fraud or duress, and mechanisms for contractual adjustment in unforeseen circumstances. Furthermore, contractual justice necessitates the observance of good faith throughout all stages of a contract’s lifecycle. Foundational tenets—including good faith, consumer protection, equitable adjustment of terms, and interpretative bias in favor of the weaker party—constitute essential prerequisites for the realization of contractual justice. Economic efficiency, defined as the optimal allocation of resources to achieve maximal satisfaction for parties at minimal cost, is operationalized in contract law through the elimination of superfluous formalities, facilitation of contract formation and termination, consumer protection measures, and the implementation of procedural rules such as statutes of limitation to curtail enforcement costs. The relationship between justice and efficiency can be conceptualized through the metaphor of a pie: justice dictates the equitable distribution of benefits (slicing the pie), while efficiency focuses on expanding the overall resource pool (growing the pie). At the macro level, efficiency in law necessitates a legal system structurally organized to foster economic growth. Consequently, legislative frameworks must undergo ex ante efficiency assessments, requiring rigorous analysis of proposed laws’ potential economic impacts during the drafting process. At the micro level, particularly in contract law, efficiency manifests in rules that minimize formalities, permit termination of voidable contracts via simple notice, etc. In conclusion, the four foundational principles within the common law system—freedom of contract, contractual security, justice, and efficiency—establish a balanced framework through dynamic interplay to address evolving legal needs. Contractual freedom, while central, is circumscribed by the imperatives of security and justice to prevent abuse. Efficiency advances economic objectives by eliminating superfluous barriers, yet remains subordinate to the demands of justice. Recent developments, such as the proliferation of digital contracts and AI-driven contract formation, have necessitated a critical reinterpretation of these principles. For instance, standardized terms on digital platforms have challenged the boundaries of contractual autonomy and justice. Ultimately, these principles operate not merely as theoretical foundations but as pragmatic instruments for developing contract law in today's complex world. اصول حقوقی عبارتند از هنجارهای مقبول از پیش موجود در جامعه که مورد شناسایی و پذیرش قرار گرفته و وارد نظام حقوقی شده‌اند. ویژگی مشترک همه اصول حقوقی عبارت است از جامعیت، مطلق و تجریدی بودن. این اصول همچنین تمایل به همگرایی با ارزش‌های اجتماعی و اخلاقی دارند. وجه تمایز اصل با قاعده حقوقی آن است که علیرغم کلی بودن هر دو، قاعده حقوقی از این جهت خاص است که برای وضعیت حقوقی خاص وضع شده و تنها بر اعمال و وقایع معینی اعمال می‌شود. در حالی که اصل، کلی است از آن جهت که تعداد موارد استعمال نامعینی را در بر می-گیرد. چهار اصل آزادی قراردادی، عدالت، کارایی و امنیت، اصولی هستند که در اغلب نظام‌های حقوقی بعنوان اصول بنیادین موجود در نظام حقوقی به رسمیت شناخته شده‌اند و منشأ قواعد و احکام قانونی متعدد هستند. در نظام حقوقی کامن‌لا نیز، که به طور خاص مورد بررسی قرار گرفته است، این اصول از خلال رویه قضایی و قوانین قابل دست‌یابی هستند.

https://lawresearchmagazine.sbu.ac.ir/article_104217_ed10163d2b6653e2d96802a80b6bf93a.pdf

دانشگاه شهید بهشتی فصلنامه تحقیقات حقوقی 1024-0772 28 2 2025 06 22 Inheritance of a Child Resulting From a Mistake in Medical Fertility in Iran, England and France ارثِ طفل ناشی از اشتباه در باروری های پزشکی در حقوق ایران، انگلیس و فرانسه 181 200 105090 10.48308/jlr.2024.234221.2643 FA غفور خوئینی دانشیار، دانشکده حقوق و علوم سیاسی، دانشگاه خوارزمی، تهران، ایران فائزه آخوندی دکتری، دانشکده حقوق و علوم سیاسی، دانشگاه خوارزمی، تهران، ایران (نویسنده مسئول) fa.akhoondi@khu.ac.ir Journal Article 2023 12 23 Abstract Medical fertility treatments have recently gained widespread acceptance among couples worldwide and are considered among the most innovative and popular reproductive technologies. Despite their growing popularity, these treatments encompass complex social, cultural, and legal-judicial dimensions. In particular, the mere use of infertility treatment methods often raises numerous legal ambiguities, primarily because Iranian law does not comprehensively address contractual aspects of infertility treatments, leaving involved parties facing significant legal uncertainties. One critical issue pertains to errors that may occur during various stages such as embryo preservation, freezing, thawing, or implantation in uterus. In cases of effective errors, the financial consequences for medical fertility procedures become significant, including considerations related to alimony and damages. Among these, inheritance rights stand out as a particularly sensitive and complex issue. While other financial effects—such as child alimony and compensation—are also noteworthy, this discussion will focus exclusively on the inheritance rights of children born through medical fertility techniques. The question of whether inheritance constitutes a legal right or a legal rule, as well as the exclusivity of its causes and obstacles, has led to divergent opinions in the field of child inheritance. This is especially pertinent in cases of heterologous fertilization, where a third-party donor intervenes outside the couple. An essential question arises: does a child born from a donation possess inheritance rights in the event of effective mistake, and if so, who does he inherit from? Specifically, in the absence of explicit regulations in "Embryo Donation Method to Infertile Couples" law of Iran, there remains considerable ambiguity. This ambiguity is compounded by the lack of clear legislative guidance, prompting reliance on reliable jurisprudential sources and fatwas. It is noteworthy that jurists and religious scholars often differ on issues related to the inheritance rights of children born from embryo, fetus, or surrogate pregnancies. Consequently, no consensus exists on the matter. This study, employing both library research and online data, adopts a descriptive-analytical approach to explore the hypothesis that Article 864 of the Iranian Civil Code, which emphasizes the principle of causal heirs, provides the most appropriate and legally consistent framework for inheriting children born from donor techniques, particularly in the context of heterologous fertilization. This approach appears to face the fewest jurisprudential and legal challenges, given that neither Islamic law nor national legislation officially recognizes depriving a child of inheritance due to a procedural or medical error. In essence, inheritance fundamentally depends on lineage and causality. Obstacles to inheritance, such as swearing, blasphemy, murder, or being born of adultery, are well-codified under Articles 880 onward of the Civil Code, leaving little room for expansion. Conversely, reasons for inheritance—such as Jarira's guarantee, allegiance of emancipation, and allegiance of leadership—have historically been adaptable and evolve in accordance with societal needs. Accordingly, the possibility of modifying, removing, or replacing existing cause including donor gametes and embryo appears legally and religiously permissible since such innovations reflect child's best interests and benefits. In English and French law, the reasons for inheritance include lineage and cause, but adoption is also a cause of inheritance in French law. Therefore, from the perspective of the reasons for inheritance, they have similarities with Iranian law. However, in these two legal systems, by using the theory of judicial parentage and recognizing the child resulting from the donation as a natural and legal child, they have temporarily prevented further challenges, while denying the biological and natural identity of the child—an approach that raises long-term concerns about the child's interests because child's biological identity is not a matter removed or changed by parties agreement. This issue has not been considered in systems such as England and France, or at least it has been shown to be very unimportant, and the primary and main priority is the child's belonging to the recipient family. This neglect of the truth and biological identity of the child will certainly present serious problems to the social order and system. Thus, in case of effective mistakes, the only desirable protection that can be seen in other legal systems, including England and France, is the provision of numerous protective institutions that will protect the child from possible physical and mental dangers, and undoubtedly, the capacity of an efficient and advanced compensation system can provide desirable protection to the victim of an effective mistake. Certainly, from this perspective, the English and French legal systems can be a model to some extent and provide effective protection for the rights of the child resulting from donation by localizing the protective systems. باروری‌های پزشکی اخیراً با استقبال بسیاری در کشورهای جهان روبروشده است. در عین حال چالش‌های متعددی ناشی از به‌کارگیری این فناوری جدید ممکن است حادث شود و یکی از آنها وقوع اشتباه در مراحل مختلف نگهداری و انجماد، ذوب و کاشت است. درصورت بروز اشتباه موثر، آثار مالی ناشی از باروری‌های پزشکی ممکن است تحت تاثیر قرارگیرد که یکی از مهمترین آنها، توارث است. مقوله حق یا حکم‌بودن توارث و همچنین حصری‌بودن اسباب و موانع آن موجب اختلاف دیدگاه در حوزه ارث‌بری است. به ویژه در حوزه باروری‌های ناهمگون( با دخالت شخص ثالث) سوالی که مطرح می‌شود اینست که طفل ناشی از اهدا، در صورت بروز اشتباه موثر از ارث محروم می‌شود یا خیر؟ بعلاوه درفرض عدم محرومیت اینکه از چه‌کسی ارث می‌برد نیز چالش‌برانگیز است. پژوهش پیش‌رو با بهره‌گیری از داده‌های کتابخانه‌ای و برخط و به‌روش توصیفی- تحلیلی به اثبات این فرضیه کوشیده است که ظرفیت ماده 864 قانون مدنی ایران و عدم حصری بودن ارث‌بران سببی، راه‌حل مطلوب برای ارث‌بردن طفل ناشی از اهدا در روش‌های ناهمگون است و به‌نظر کمترین چالش فقهی-‌حقوقی را به‌دنبال دارد و مجوز شرعی و قانونی برای محرومیت طفل ناشی از اشتباه از ارث، به‌رسمیت شناخته‌نشده‌است. در حقوق انگلیس و فرانسه با استفاده از نظریه نسب‌حکمی و شناسایی طفل ناشی از اهدا به‌عنوان طفل طبیعی و قانونی زوجین از چالش‌های بعدی پیشگیری‌نموده‌اند و بدین‌ترتیب درصورت بروز اشتباه موثر، نهادهای حمایتی متعددی از طفل در مقابل مخاطرات احتمالی حفاظت‌خواهندکرد و ظرفیت نظام‌جبران‌خسارت کارآمد و پیشرفته می‌تواند از زیان‌دیده اشتباه موثر، حمایت نماید.

https://lawresearchmagazine.sbu.ac.ir/article_105090_434a386078a733d273334c45ab18ba48.pdf

دانشگاه شهید بهشتی فصلنامه تحقیقات حقوقی 1024-0772 28 2 2025 06 22 Sustainable employment of prisoners is a new approach to the production boom اشتغال پایدار زندانیان رویکردی جدید در رونق تولید 201 220 105231 10.48308/jlr.2025.228596.2300 FA فتاحه تیموری دانشجوى دکترا تخصصی حقوق جزا و جرم شناسی ، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، واحد اصفهان (خوراسگان)، اصفهان، ایران محمود اشرافی استادیارگروه حقوق جزا و جرم شناسی، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی واحد اصفهان(خوراسگان)، اصفهان، ایران مسعود حیدری دانشیار گروه حقوق جزا و جرم‌شناسی، دانشکده علوم انسانی و حقوق، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی واحد اصفهان (خوراسگان)، اصفهان، ایران Journal Article 2022 09 03 ABSTRACT Employment and the pursuit of initiatives to bolster national production have recently gained prominence in Iran, reflecting a strategic priority aimed at improving the country’s economic landscape. Recognized as a major project within the framework of the Judiciary Transformation Document, this initiative is managed by the Prisons Organization and the Department of Educational and Protective Measures, which acts as the implementing body. This research endeavors to explore the benefits of investing in the enhancement and promotion of prisoners' employment, emphasizing innovative approaches to managing their job opportunities as key human resources under governmental oversight. Using a descriptive-analytical methodology, the study synthesizes information derived from documents, books, articles, and online sources. Additionally, the research examines the employment policies of the prison organization and, where appropriate, incorporates interviews with stakeholders involved in this domain to enrich the data collection process, thereby enhancing the comprehensiveness and robustness of the study. Beyond reducing recidivism, career development for inmates presents a viable strategy for creating employment opportunities and elevating national productivity in both qualitative and quantitative terms. Effective planning and management of prisoners’ employment—aimed at ensuring continuity of work—are vital for guiding inmates toward stable, lawful employment in the society. The implementation of short-term, medium-term, and long-term strategies and policies is deemed essential for finding an efficient policy and fostering job stability among prisoners. From an economic perspective, establishing dedicated centers for managing employment opportunities and creating job search platforms for inmates are significant steps toward increasing production capacity. To advance employment development and improve vocational training systems within the prison sector, particularly under the medium-term goals outlined in the Judiciary Transformation Program, it is critical to design a clear and precise plan aligned with national production objectives. Country's production is supported by four fundamental pillars: political economy, investment, currency, and human and social capital. Production is shaped based on the factors of production in any economy. Notably, human and social capital is paramount for production and its sustainability; without them, production efforts risk fundamental instability. Despite the existence of laws governing employment, entrepreneurship, and production enhancement, Iran faces fragmentation and overlapping legal frameworks, resulting in inconsistencies and implementation challenges in achieving production promotion and economic improvement. Stakeholders involved in prisoner employment are often unaware of existing How to Cite: Teimouri, Fattaheh, Ashrafi, Mahmoud, Heidari, Masoud, "Stable Employment of Prisoners, New Approach in Production Boom", Legal Research, Vol. 28, No. 110, 2025, pp:201-220. legal tools that could facilitate the advancement of employment and production goals within the correctional system. Future research should focus on identifying skills and productive jobs aligned with prisoners’ individual profiles, leveraging collected data—possibly enhanced by artificial intelligence—to determine suitable career paths and optimal employment opportunities. Information integrity leading to a sustainable employment and strategic oversight in prisoner's job search profile requires measures to control prisoner's situation. Developing an integrated information management system (SAMAJM) for prisoner employment is proposed to facilitate cohesive management of prisoners' employment, personalize job placement, coaching career development, attract entrepreneurs and investors, and promote local employment as well as prisoners empowerment that aligns with cultural and geographic contexts. Such a system would operate under the supervision of the Job Opportunity Management Center, which would also be responsible for forecasting and proposing sustainable job opportunities for inmates. Innovative concepts like Career Coaching—an emerging discipline within coaching sciences—aim to foster collaboration between the coach and the client (here: the prisoner), encouraging inmates to realize their full potential through stimulating cognitive and creative capacities. Additionally, implementing an electronic employment record within the Prisoners’ Employment System can streamline the collection of identity data, employment history, physical and psychological assessments, and talent identification from the moment of detention, guiding inmates along customized career pathways while motivating lawful income generation. Crowdfunding presents another effective mechanism, facilitating access to a broad network of investors via social and specialized platforms. This approach can financially support prisoners’ entrepreneurial initiatives, leveraging technological entrepreneurship to produce employment for prisoners to boost production and economic development. Integrating such innovations into dedicated modules within existing software platforms like SAMAJM is appropriate. Ultimately, this study aims to provide comprehensive job prospects for prisoners upon release, improve working conditions, ensure sustainable employment, and foster a production-oriented approach—harmonizing legal frameworks to promote this segment of society's business situation. اشتغال و بکارگیری الزامات رونق تولید ملی، از دغدغه های اخیر در ایران و راهبردی قابل ملاحظه جهت ارتقاء وضعیت اقتصادی جامعه است. بدین نحو که به عنوان یکی از طرح های پیشران و در الویت سند تحول قوه قضائیه در دستور کار سازمان زندانها و اقدامات تأمینی تربیتی به عنوان متولی اجرا قرار گرفته است. این پژوهش درصدد بررسی مزایای سرمایه گذاری بر روی ارتقاء و رونق تولید مشاغل زندانیان و ارائه راهکارهای نوین در جهت مدیریت فرصت های شغلی آن ها به عنوان نیروی انسانی تحت کنترل حاکمیت است. که با بهره گیری از روش توصیفی تحلیلی، با بررسی اسناد، کتب، مقالات و منابع اینترنتی به تقریر درآمده است. همچنین سعی شده ضمن مطالعه در حوزه اشتغال سازمان زندان ها و عندالاقتضاء مصاحبه با دست اندرکاران این بخش از نظام زندانبانی به عنوان ابزار گرداوری اطلاعات، به فراخور مباحث به دایره استنادی این روش مطالعاتی افزوده تا از خلال آن، تحقیق حاضر، قوت و جامعیت پیدا کند. این مقاله با هدف ارائه چشم انداز شغلی برای زندانیان بعد از آزادی، درصدد بهبود وضعیت کار، اشتغال پایدار و رونق تولیدات حاصل از مشاغل زندانیان و انسجام قوانین موجود در زمینه بهبود کسب و کار این بخش از جامعه است. هدایت شغلی زندانیان در راستای تداوم بخشیدن به اشتغال آنها علاوه بر پیشگیری از ارتکاب مجدد جرم راهکاری مناسب جهت کمک به اشتغال آفرینی و بهادادن به رونق تولید ملی از لحاظ کیفی و کمی است.

https://lawresearchmagazine.sbu.ac.ir/article_105231_f53950af662f549bbae5c04e5e73ae92.pdf

دانشگاه شهید بهشتی فصلنامه تحقیقات حقوقی 1024-0772 28 2 2025 06 22 The Doctrine of Forum Non Conveniens and its Development in the UK and USA دکترین دادگاه نامناسب و توسعه آن در حقوق پادشاهی متحده و ایالات متحده آمریکا 221 243 105099 10.48308/jlr.2024.235073.2701 FA محمدمجد کابری دانش آموخته دکتری حقوق خصوصی، دانشکده حقوق و علوم سیاسی، دانشگاه فردوسی مشهد، مشهد، ایران اعظم انصاری استادیار گروه حقوق خصوصی، دانشکده حقوق و علوم سیاسی، دانشگاه فردوسی مشهد، مشهد، ایران رضا معبودی نیشابوری استادیار گروه حقوق خصوصی، دانشکده حقوق و علوم سیاسی، دانشگاه فردوسی مشهد، مشهد، ایران Journal Article 2024 03 12 Abstract According to the doctrine of "Forum Non Conveniens", which originated in common law, a court that has jurisdiction over a case may suspend proceedings or dismiss the case, provided that the other court is more appropriate for adjudicating the dispute. This doctrine, which first emerged in Scotland and later spread to England, the United States, and other common law countries, has undergone various transformations since its inception in the early seventeenth century. This study, in addition to examining the reasons behind the emergence of this doctrine, clarifies the conditions for its application, namely the "Existence of an Alternative Competent Court" and "The Appropriateness of another Court". Although Under Iranian law, a court with jurisdiction over an international dispute cannot refuse to hear the case and apply the doctrine of inappropriate forum just because a foreign court might be more appropriate. But this article seeks to introduce the common law doctrine into Iranian legal doctrine to encourage legislator to develop comprehensive and effective legal frameworks for addressing international legal disputes. This study employs a descriptive-analytical research methodology, utilizing a comparative approach to examine the legal systems of the United Kingdom and the United States, explaining the reliance on legal doctrine and case law from both jurisdictions, the paper explores the conditions under which the doctrine of forum non conveniens is applied. So that in this way, the objective is not only to trace the historical evolution of the doctrine but also to highlight the variations in its application across these two systems. The research is based on the library research method. Scottish courts have taken a relatively flexible approach to applying the doctrine of Forum Non Conveniens and if they are convinced that there is another competent court which can deal with the case more appropriately from the perspective of the interests of the parties and the requirements of justice, they apply the mentioned doctrine. In England, courts initially invoked the doctrine only if two conditions were met: first, the defendant had to demonstrate that bringing the case in England was oppressive or vexatious; and second, that the same case had already been filed in a foreign court. Over time, the first condition alone came to be viewed as sufficient. However, today, English courts have moved closer to the Scottish approach: if the court concludes that it is not the appropriate forum and another court is more appropriate, it will apply the doctrine. In the United States, forum non conveniens was initially applied in domestic cases and later extended to international disputes. The criteria for applying the doctrine in both types of disputes are the same: (1) there must be an alternative competent forum, and (2) that forum must be more appropriate for resolving the dispute. In determining the appropriateness of another court, American courts must consider both private and public interest factors, which include, among others, “access to sources of proof”, “congestion in the courts”, and “local interest in the litigation”. Although the Forum Non Conveniens doctrine can help a case be heard in a more appropriate court and make it easier to recognize and enforce the judgment, it also has some disadvantages. The most significant challenge is the lack of predictability regarding the competent forum and the eventual outcome for the parties involved. Another concern is the risk of parallel proceedings, which the doctrine cannot effectively prevent. A third issue is the potential for the parties to face a denial of justice. Of course, this problem will arise if the court rejects the dispute, but such a problem will not occur if the dispute is suspended until a more appropriate court makes a decision. Although in Iranian law, some legal scholars argue that, due to provisions like Article 971 of the Civil Code, the doctrine of Forum Non Conveniens cannot be applied in the Iranian legal system; there are signs of its acceptance in Iranian law. A different interpretation of Article 971 could allow for the application of the doctrine and give Iranian judges the discretion to assess whether another court is more appropriate. Moreover, certain rules in Iranian Civil Procedure Code show, albeit to a limited extent, judges do have some discretion in identifying a more appropriate forum in domestic cases. The doctrine of Forum Non Conveniens provides a general basis for a court to decline jurisdiction. Under this doctrine, if the court determines that it is an inappropriate forum and a court in another country would be more appropriate, it may refuse to hear the case in favour of the more appropriate forum. This requires two key conditions: first, the seized court inappropriate forum, and second, another country's more appropriate forum. In principle, without these two conditions being satisfied, the court cannot decline jurisdiction under this doctrine. The determination of whether the current court is inappropriate and another country’s court is more appropriate lies with the court hearing the case. In making this decision, the court considers several factors, including the degree of connection between the dispute and the forum, ease of access to witnesses, availability of evidence, and the interests of the parties involved. دکترین دادگاه نامناسب در کامن‌لا اعمال می‌شود و به دادگاهی که دعوا در آن اقامه شده اجازه می‌دهد صلاحدید خود را اعمال کند و چنانچه دادگاه کشور دیگری را برای رسیدگی به دعوا مناسب‌تر تشخیص دهد از رسیدگی به دعوا به نفع دادگاه مناسب‌تر عدول کند. دکترین مذکور توسط کشورهای تابع خانواده حقوقی کامن‌لا همانند ایالات متحده آمریکا، پادشاهی متحده، کانادا و استرالیا پذیرفته شده و رشد پیدا کرده است. مقاله حاضر ضمن معرفی دکترین دادگاه نامناسب در حقوق ایالات متحده آمریکا و پادشاهی متحده به تبیین دلیل ابداع چنین دکترینی در کشورهای کامن‌لا می‌پردازد و شرایط دقیق اعمال این دکترین را تشریح می‌نماید. مقاله نشان می‌دهد اجتناب از آثار نامطلوب قاعده سنتی صلاحیت شخصی مبتنی بر وجود خوانده و تحویل ابلاغیه به او در کشور دادگاه، دلیل ابتکار دکترین دادگاه نامناسب در کشورهای کامن‌لا است. همچنین چنانچه دادگاهی که دعوا در آن مطرح شده خود را برای رسیدگی به اختلاف، نامناسب و دادگاه کشور دیگری را برای رسیدگی به دعوا مناسب‌تر بداند، شرایط اعمال چنین دکترینی فراهم است.

https://lawresearchmagazine.sbu.ac.ir/article_105099_6410d8a3118b60c38e79886827d6e39f.pdf

دانشگاه شهید بهشتی فصلنامه تحقیقات حقوقی 1024-0772 28 2 2025 06 22 A Comparative Study of the Establishment of a Human Rights Ombudsman with a View to the Necessity of Establishing a "National Institution for Human Rights and Citizenship" in the Iranian Legal System مطالعۀ تطبیقی تأسیس آمبودزمان حقوق بشر با نگاهی به ضرورت ایجاد «نهاد ملّی حقوق بشر و شهروندی» در نظام حقوقی ایران 243 262 105652 10.48308/jlr.2025.238736.2848 FA هادی صالحی استادیار گروه حقوق عمومی و بین‌الملل دانشگاه شیراز سید حسین شریفی دانشجوی دکتری حقوق عمومی دانشگاه شیراز دنیا سنجابی بروجنی دانشجوی کارشناسی ارشد حقوق عمومی دانشگاه شیراز Journal Article 2025 02 12 In recent decades, the importance of National Human Rights Institutions as domestic mechanisms for implementing and promoting human rights has been increasingly emphasized internationally. These institutions, which include human rights commissions and ombudsmen, play a vital role in monitoring states' human rights obligations, particularly through mechanisms like the UN Human Rights Council and the Optional Protocol to the Convention against Torture. The Human Rights Ombudsman, as a key type of National Human Rights Institution, goes beyond the classic role of ombudsman in addressing administrative maladministration, specifically focusing on the protection and promotion of individuals' fundamental rights, and may possess broader powers to effect systemic change. In the Iranian legal system, despite the existence of institutions with oversight functions, there is a felt gap for an independent, specialized institution with the characteristics of a Human Rights Ombudsman to effectively guarantee the fundamental rights enshrined in the Constitution and other instruments. This article, using a descriptive-analytical method, examines the conceptual evolution and functions of the Human Rights Ombudsman internationally, takes a comparative look at the experiences of some countries, assesses the necessity of establishing a "National Institution for Human Rights and Citizenship" in Iran, and analyzes the challenges and ways forward. The main objective is to explain the crucial role such an institution can play in bridging the gap between legal human rights standards and their practical implementation in the country. This research employs a descriptive-analytical methodology. In the descriptive part, based on library resources and international documents, the concept of the Ombudsman and its evolution towards the Human Rights Ombudsman is explored. The main functions of this institution – including investigating human rights violations, monitoring public administration, promoting human rights, addressing systemic issues, and providing remedies – are detailed and compared with the functions of the classic ombudsman. Furthermore, the status of the Human Rights Ombudsman as a National Human Rights Institution and the international standards governing it, particularly the «Paris Principles» which include independence, broad mandate, adequate funding, and other aspects, are examined. In the analytical part, through a comparative study of the experiences of establishing and operating similar institutions in countries like Turkey, Russia, and the United Arab Emirates, factors influencing their effectiveness are identified. Subsequently, the status of existing oversight bodies in Iran such as the General Inspectorate Organization and the Article 90 Commission of Parliament and previous attempts to create a National Human Rights Institution including bills from 2004 and 2021 are evaluated, and the necessity of establishing an independent institution with Human Rights Ombudsman characteristics within the Iranian legal framework is analyzed.The research findings indicate that the Human Rights Ombudsman as a National Human Rights Institution, plays a distinct and vital role in legal systems. Unlike classic ombudsmen primarily focus on administrative maladministration, these institutions have an explicit mandate to protect and promote human rights and possess broader powers, including initiating investigations into systemic issues, proposing legislative reforms, conducting human rights education, and, in some cases, referring cases to higher authorities like constitutional courts. Compliance with the «Paris Principles», particularly institutional and financial independence, a broad mandate, and accessibility, is essential for the effectiveness of these institutions. The experiences of countries such as Turkey, Russia, and the UAE demonstrate that establishing such institutions is feasible and beneficial even in diverse political systems, contributing to the improvement of the human rights situation. In Iran, existing oversight bodies like the General Inspectorate Organization and the Parliament's Article 90 Commission cannot effectively perform the functions of a Human Rights Ombudsman due to limitations in their mandate lacking an explicit focus on human rights, insufficient independence, jurisdiction confined to specific parts of the government, and inadequate accessibility. The main gap is the absence of an independent, accessible, and specialized mechanism for handling complaints regarding violations of citizens' fundamental rights enshrined in Chapter 3 of the Constitution and other documents and proactively monitoring the implementation of these rights. The lack of effective «Constitutional Complaint» procedures exacerbates this need. Actions by governments in different periods, including case-specific interventions by the Vice Presidency for Constitutional Affairs and the submission of two unsuccessful bills in 2004 and 2021 to establish a "National Institution for Human Rights and Citizenship ," attest to the recognition of this necessity by parts of the state apparatus. The 2021 bill, in particular, envisioned duties and powers for the National Human Rights Institution consistent with international standards.This research concludes that establishing an independent "National Institution for Human Rights and Citizenship" in Iran, in the form of a Human Rights Ombudsman, is necessary and crucial. Such an institution could significantly help fill the existing gaps in the system for guaranteeing basic rights, especially given the limitations of judicial review mechanisms, by proactively monitoring the implementation of fundamental rights, addressing individual and systemic complaints using soft powers such as recommendations, reports, and mediation, promoting a human rights culture, and proposing legislative reforms. Creating this institution would not only respond to domestic demands and increase public trust but also help improve Iran's international interactions and image. Although challenges such as political resistance, structural limitations, and cultural perceptions exist, designing a domestic, independent model that is compatible with the Constitution and international standards like the Paris Principles, can be an effective step towards realizing human dignity and good governance. این مقاله به بررسی تطبیقی کارکردها و ضرورت ایجاد «نهاد ملی حقوق بشر و شهروندی» در نظام حقوقی ایران با تمرکز بر مدل آمبودزمان حقوق بشری میپردازد. با استفاده از روش توصیفی-تحلیلی، مقاله نشان میدهد که آمبودزمان‌های حقوق بشری با تمرکز بر حمایت از حقوق بنیادین، نظارت بر نهادهای دولتی و خصوصی، و ایجاد تغییرات سیستمی، نقشی حیاتی در تضمین حقوق بشر ایفا میکنند. تجربه کشورهایی مانند ترکیه، روسیه و امارات متحده عربی مؤید اهمیت استقلال نهادی، اختیارات گسترده و تطابق با اصول پاریس در موفقیت این نهادهاست. در ایران، نهادهای موجود نظیر سازمان بازرسی کل کشور یا کمیسیون اصل ۹۰، به‌دلیل محدودیتهای صلاحیتی، نبود استقلال و دسترسی‌پذیری ضعیف، فاقد کارآمدی لازم برای ایفای نقش آمبودزمان حقوق بشری هستند.این مقاله با تأکید بر خلأ قانونی و ناکارآمدی سازوکارهای فعلی، ایجاد نهادی مستقل مبتنی بر استانداردهای بین‌المللی را ضروری میداند. این نهاد باید با اختیارات نظارتی گسترده، امکان رسیدگی به شکایات فردی و سیستمی، آموزش حقوق بشر و تعامل با نهادهای بین‌المللی، به بهبود حکمرانی و پاسخگویی دولت بینجامد.چالشهای پیشِ‌رو شامل مقاومت سیاسی، محدودیتهای ساختاری و تلقی حقوق بشر به‌عنوان مفهومی «غربی» است؛ با این حال، طراحی مدلی بومی متناسب با اصول اسلامی و قانون اساسی میتواند راهگشا باشد.

https://lawresearchmagazine.sbu.ac.ir/article_105652_19a70940a4ed25e4704685cb71313618.pdf

دانشگاه شهید بهشتی فصلنامه تحقیقات حقوقی 1024-0772 28 2 2025 06 22 Fronts of differential detection Anti- smuggling’s جلوهای کشف افتراقی قاچاق کالا و ارز 263 281 104107 10.48308/jlr.2023.229669.2377 FA ابوالفضل مژدهی پور دانشجوی دکتری دانشگاه آزاد واحد شهر قدس احمد رمضانی عضو هیئت علمی دانشگاه علم و فرهنگ علیرضا میلانی دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی واحد اسلامشهر Journal Article 2023 05 14 Due to the importance and necessity of detecting the Anti- smuggling’s, the legislator has established special rules for the detection of Anti- smuggling’s, which are different from the general rules for the detection of other crimes. Moqtan has counted various devices to detect the Anti- smuggling’s, some of these devices are considered to be detectives and some are mere detectives this distinction has caused the legislator to foresee a special rule regarding the detection of Anti- smuggling’s. On the one hand, these rules are different from the general rules governing the detection of other crimes, and on the other hand, distinctions should be made between the detection of detectives who are in charge and those who are not in charge. Another distinguishing feature governing the discovery of Anti- smuggling’s is the establishment of secondary jurisdiction for discoverers through discovery One of the most important manifestations of this authority is to be present in the review and retrial stages and to defend the discovery and the minutes of the discovery meeting, to protest against the votes implying acquittal and to determine the assignment of the cases of Anti- smuggling’s, which in other crimes, such authority and authority is for bailiffs and discoverers. Does not exist. This article, in addition to explaining the principles governing the behavior of the detectors of Anti- smuggling’s, the differential aspects of the detection of Anti- smuggling’s with other crimes and also the exceptional subordinate competence of the detectors of this field are discussed. چکیده: با توجه به اهمیت و ضرورت کشف قاچاق کالا و ارز قانونگذار ضوابط خاصی را برای کشف قاچاق کالا و ارز مقرر نموده که این ضوابط با ضوابط عام ناظر به کشف سایر جرایم متفاوت است. مقتن دستگاه های مختلفی را برای کشف قاچاق کالا و ارز احصاء نموده که برخی از این دستگاه ها کاشف ضابط و برخی صرفأ کاشف محسوب می شوند. همین تمایز سبب شده مقنن ضابط افتراقی خاصی پیرامون کشف قاچاق کالا و ارز پیش بینی نماید که این ضوابط از یک طرف با قواعد عمومی حاکم بر کشف سایر جرایم متفاوت بوده و از طرف دیگر تمایزاتی میان کشف کاشفین ضابط و کاشفینی که ضابط نیستند قایل شده است. از دیگر وجوه افتراقی حاکم بر کشف قاچاق کالا و ارز ایجاد صلاحیت تبعی برای کاشفین به واسطه کشف صورت گرفته است. از مهمترین جلوه های این صلاحیت حضور در مراحل تجدید نظر و اعاده دادرسی و دفاع از کشف و صورتجلسه کشف خود، اعتراض به آرای متضمن برائت و تعیین تکلیف پروند های قاچاق کالا و ارز است که در سایر جرایم چنین صلاحیت و اختیاری برای ضابطین و کاشفین وجود ندارد. در این مقاله علاوه بر تبیین اصول حاکم بر رفتار کاشفین قاچاق کالا و ارز به جنبه های افتراقی کشف قاچاق کالا و ارز با سایر جرایم و همچنین صلاحیت تبعی استثنایی کاشفین این حوزه پرداخته می شود.

https://lawresearchmagazine.sbu.ac.ir/article_104107_a3bed7f6e11bd1f0472cdd6838eab7ed.pdf

دانشگاه شهید بهشتی فصلنامه تحقیقات حقوقی 1024-0772 28 2 2025 06 22 Behavioral paradigm of the Security Council in dealing with terrorism In the context of Article 51 of the Charter; From AL-Qaeda to ISIS پارادایم رفتاری شورای امنیت در مقابله با تروریسم در بستر ماده 51 منشور؛ از القاعده تا داعش 281 300 103613 10.48308/jlr.2023.230509.2447 FA حمیدرضا اکبرپور دکتری، مرکز مطالعات استراتژیک خاورمیانه، تهران، ایران (نویسنده مسئول) hamidakbarpour172@gmail.com شهاب شریفی استادیار، دانشکده دفاع ملی، دانشگاه عالی دفاع ملی (داعا)، تهران، ایران الماس اسلامی دکتری، پژوهشکده جنگ‌های نامنظم، پژوهشگاه علوم و معارف دفاع مقدس، تهران، ایران Journal Article 2023 02 04 Abstract The prohibition of the use of force constitutes one of the cardinal principles of international law, subject to only two exceptions: first, the inherent right of self-defense as enshrined in Article 51 of the United Nations Charter, and second, measures undertaken by the Security Council to maintain international peace and security pursuant to Chapter VII of the Charter. Prior to the attacks of September 11, the invocation of the right of self-defense was predominantly confined to states against each other. However, following the emergence of non-state threats such as Al-Qaeda and ISIS, the question arose as to whether self-defense can be invoked against terrorist groups. This article seeks to analyze the behavioral patterns of the United Nations Security Council in responding to this issue, and to assess the extent to which an expansive interpretation of the right to self-defense against terrorist groups. This study adopts a descriptive-analytical approach, grounded in extensive library-based research. Data were collected from academic literature, Security Council resolutions, judgments of the International Court of Justice (ICJ), and credible online resources, and were systematically analyzed. The research is selected from the pre-9/11 era to the emergence of ISIS and the corresponding Security Council resolutions. Special attention is devoted to detailed examination of Resolutions 1368, 1373, and 2249, and an analysis of the legal literature related to the right to self-defense. The findings reveal that the terrorist attacks of September 11 represented a watershed moment in the conceptualization of self-defense against non-state threats. In Resolutions 1368 and 1373, immediately after these attacks, the Security Council recognized the right of states to self-defense against terrorist threats, although this recognition was limited to the preamble of the resolution and was not explicit in the operative parts. In these resolutions, self-defense was presented in general terms without specific reference to the non-state nature of the attackers. A more nuanced analysis demonstrates that, after these two resolutions, in subsequent resolutions—even in facing broader threats such as ISIS—the Council refrained from reiterating or expanding this position. Resolution 2249 on ISIS, although it condemned the threats of this group and called for confronting it, without addressing the right to self-defense and was not issued under Chapter VII of the Charter; therefore, its legal value for justifying the use of force is limited. Moreover, in the analysis of existing legal theories, it was observed that the broad interpretation of Article 51 of the Charter, which accepts self-defense against non-state groups based on theories such as the "Unable or Unwilling" doctrine and the "Accumulation of Events" theory, although supported by some countries such as the United States, France and the United Kingdom, has not become a binding custom at the international level. Nevertheless, these interpretations have not crystallized into binding customary international law. The jurisprudence of the ICJ, notably in the Nicaragua case and more recently in Democratic Republic of Congo v. Uganda, has consistently maintained that an armed attack attributable to a state is a prerequisite for invoking the right of self-defense. On the other hand, the Security Council has emphasized the strengthening of collective mechanisms for counter-terrorism, such as Sanctions Committees and the Counter-Terrorism Committee, and has minimized reliance on unilateral uses of force. This approach indicates that the Security Council has considered self-defense against terrorism to be an exception and not an established norm. The Security Council’s practice indicates that the invocation of self-defense against terrorist groups post-9/11 has been recognized only as an exceptional response within a specific political context. In its subsequent resolutions, the Council has refrained from expanding this interpretation and has reaffirmed the traditional framework of the prohibition on the use of force. Even in facing the unprecedented threat posed by ISIS, the Council declined to institutionalize the right of self-defense against non-state actors as a legal procedure. Moreover, by prioritizing collective responses to terrorism and reinforcing the discourse surrounding threats to international peace and security, the Council has effectively precluded the establishment of a unilateral right to the use of force. As a result, the use of self-defense against non-state groups must continue to be analyzed with caution and within the traditional framework of international law. ماده 51 منشور سازمان ملل متحد در باب حق دفاع مشروع است. این حق تا قبل از حملات یازده سپتامبر، کمتر محل مناقشه بود. اما در طول بیست سال گذشته و در پی دو مناقشه بزرگ در خاورمیانه و واکنش شورای امنیت به آن، این حق و نحوه استناد به آن، دوباره به محل بحث و جدل بدل شد. در این مقاله با توجه به ادعای بازنگری شورای امنیت در مفهوم دفاع مشروع و صدور قطعنامه‌هایی از طرف این سازمان، به بررسی و تحلیل رفتاری شورا در این خصوص پرداخته شده است. در مجموع علی‌رغم صدور قطعنامه‌های 1368 و 1373 که به تفسیر موسع از حق دفاع مشروع پرداخته است، اما عدم تکرار این موضوع در قطعنامه‌های متعددی که شورا در سال‌های بعد صادر کرده است، نشان از عدم تحول اساسی در رفتار شورا نسبت به مفهوم دفاع مشروع دارد. حتی صدور قطعنامه 2249 را که برخی مبنایی برای توسل به دفاع مشروع در برابر داعش می‌دانند، فاقد وجاهت لازم است. چرا که از یک سو به دفاع مشروع اشاره نکرده است و از سوی دیگر نیز بر اساس فصل هفتم منشور صادر نشده است. از سوی دیگر شورا در رویه خود برای مقابله با تروریسم، به طور فزاینده‌ای نقش ساختارهای زیر نظر خود را تقویت کرده است. همچنین به تقویت ادبیات شورا در مورد تروریسم به عنوان تهدید علیه صلح وامنیت بین‌المللی پرداخته است که حوزه اصلی مسئولیتش تلقی می‌شود. بنابراین اقدام شورا در باب جواز توسل به دفاع مشروع در تقابل با تروریسم را باید یک استثناء دانست.

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