International Law in Wonderlands Cyber Operations in Territorial Sea and the High Seas in the Light of Tallinn Manual 2.0

Document Type : Original Article

Authors

1 Associate Professor, Department of Public and International Law, Faculty of Law and Political Science, Allameh Tabataba’i University, Tehran, Iran.

2 Ph.D., Faculty of Law, FUniversity of Qom, Qom, Iran

3 . Ph.D., Candidate/ Law Faculty/ Qom University/ Qom/ Iran

Abstract

Cyber space and activities such as cyber operations which are conducted in it are one of the new challenges facing the contemporary international law. Accordingly, exploration and determination of issues relating to this space and its related activities, inter alia, from the perspective of international law, has an undeniable significance and necessity. In this regard, the present study has attempted to examine the requirements of cyber operations in territorial sea and high seas in the light of 2017 Tallinn Manual 02. The findings of this paper imply that conducting cyber operations in the said maritime zones should be compatible with the principles and rules which govern them. Generally speaking, cyber space is not a new territory or area for human activities in the framework of international law. Consequently, cyber operations are considered cyber activities which are conducted by human beings in land, sea, air and outer space and, as a result, are governed by international law standards applicable in this territories.

Keywords

Main Subjects

References

  1.  

    References

    Books

    1. Brownlie, Ian, Principles of Public International Law (Edition: James Crawford), Translated by: Mohammad Habibi Mojandeh, Qom: Mofid University, First Edition, 2017. (in Persian)
    2. Churchill, Robin and Allen Lowe, International Law of the Sea, Translated by: Bahman Aghaie, Tehran: Ganj-e-Danesh, 10th edition, 2021. (in Persian)
    3. Delerue, François. Cyber Operations and International Law, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020.
    4. Lemieux, Frederic (ed.). Current and Emerging Trends in Cyber Operations: Policy, Strategy and Practice, London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.
    5. Matin Daftari, Ahmad, Evolution of International Law of the Sea: From Grotius to Geneva Conferences, (Setting and Editing: Houshang Zandi), Tehran: Ganj-e-Danesh, First Edition, 2008. (in Persian)
    6. Omidi, Ali, International Law: From Theory to Practice, Tehran: Mizan, Second Edition, 2015. (in Persian)
    7. Pir-Nia (MoshiroDouleh), Hassan, International Law, (by effort of Mohammad Golban), Tehran: Didar, First Edition, 2006. (in Persian)
    8. Roscini, Marco. Cyber Operations and the Use of Force in International Law, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.
    9. Schmitt, Michael (ed.). Tallinn Manual 2.0 on the International Law Applicable to Cyber Operations, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017.
    10. Schmitt, Michael (ed.). Tallinn Manual on the International Law Applicable to Cyber Warfare, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013.
    11. Shaw, Malcolm Natan, International Law, Translated by: Mohammad Hossein Vaghar, Tehran: Ettela’at, First Edition, 2010. (in Persian)
    12. US Department of State. US DoD Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, Available at: https://irp.fas.org/doddir/dod/dictionary.pdf, Date of Release: 2021, Accessed: 21 February 2023.
    13. Zamani, Sayyed Ghasem, A Reflection on the Observance of Law of Neutrality in the War Imposed against Iran by Iraq, Tehran: Shahr-e-Danesh, First Edition, 2001. (in Persian)
    14. Ziaei Bigdeli, Mohammad Reza, Public International Law, Tehran: Ganj-e-Danesh, 75th Edition, 2022. (in Persian)
    15. Zol’eyin, Parviz, Fundamentals of Public International Law, Tehran: Publication Center of Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Sixth Edition, 2009. (in Persian)

    Articles

    1. Aalberts, Tanja E. and Gammeltoft-Hansen, Thomas. “Sovereignty at Sea: The Law and Politics of Saving Lives in Mare Liberum”, Journal of International Relations and Development, Issue 17, 2014.
    2. Barnsby, Robert and Shane Reeeves, “Give Them an Inch, They’ll Take a Terabyte: How States May Interpret Tallinn Manual 2.0’s International Human Rights Law Chapter”, Texas Law Review, Volume 95, 2019.
    3. Biller, J. “Cyber Operations and the Second Geneva Convention”, International Review of the Red Cross, Volume 10, Issues 1-2-3, 2018.
    4. Biller, J. T. and Schmitt, N. Michael, “Classification of Cyber Capabilities
      and Operations as Weapons, Means, or Methods of Warfare”. International Law Studies, Volume 95, 2019.
    5. Chircop, L. “Territorial Sovereignty in Cyberspace after Tallinn Manual 2.0.”, Melbourne Journal of International Law, Volume 20, 2019.
    6. Fazaeli, Mostafa and Mehdi Keykhosravi, “A Comparative Study of Territorial Waters and Its Governing Requirements in the Convention on the Legal Status of the Caspian Sea and the Convention on the Law of the Sea”, Journal of Comparative Law Review, Volume 12, Issue 1, 2021. (in Persian)
    7. Hassan-Khani, Ali and Sayyed Jamal Seyfi, “Countermeasures for Human Rights Obligations”, Journal of Public Law Research, Volume 19, Issue 56, 2017. (in Persian)
    8. Lotrionte, C. “Reconsidering the Consequences for State-Sponsored Hostile Cyber Operations Under International Law”, The Cyber Defense Review, Volume 3, Issue 2, 2018.
    9. Mir-Heydar, Dorreh, Bahador Gholami and Fatemeh Sadat Mir-Ahmadi, Political Geography and International Law of the Sea, Human Geography Research Quarterly, Volume 46, Issue 2, 2014. (in Persian)
    10. Momtaz, Jamshid, “Dual Interpretation of Convention on Law of the Sea, Iran’s Maritime Zones Act and the US Objection, In: Momtaz, Jamshid (with the cooperation of Amir Hossein Ranjbarian)”, Iran and International Law, Translation and Research: Amir Hossein Ranjbarian, Tehran: Dadgostar, First Edition, 1997. (in Persian)
    11. Mousavi, Sayyed Fazlollah, Mehdi Mousavi and Ensieh Jadidi, “Current Challenges of International a Law concerning the Jurisdiction over Piracy”, Law Research Quarterly, Volume 13, Issue 32, 2011. (in Persian)
    12. Neo, M. “The Rising Threat of Maritime Cyber-Attacks: Level of Maritime Cyber-Security Preparedness Along the Straits of Malacca and Singapore”, Sea Power Soundings, Issue 42, 2021.
    13. Office of the Staff Judge Advocate. “General Principles of the Law of the Sea”, International Law Studies, Volume 97, Issue 27, 2021.
    14. Patrick, C. “Debugging the Tallinn Manual 2.0’s Application of the Due Diligence Principle to Cyber Operations”, Washington International Law Journal, Volume 28, Issue 2, 2019.
    15. Ranjbar, Alireza and Ali Garshasbi, “Fundamental Obstacles Facing the Codification of International Law Governing Cyber-Attacks”, Journal of International Law Review, Volume 37, Issue 63, 2021. (in Persian)
    16. Rasoul-Pour Nalkiashari, Somayeh, Afshin Jafari, Abdolkarim Shaheidar, “Maritime Delimitation Zones in the Framework of Customary Rules”, Journal of Interdisciplinary Legal Researches, Volume 1, Issue 4, 2021. (in Persian)
    17. Salehi, Javad, “Freedom of the High Seas in Conflict with Coastal State Jurisdiction with Reference to “Norstar” Case”, Journal of International Law Review, Volume 37, Issue 63, 2021. (in Persian)
    18. Shayegan, Farideh and Sayyed Hamed Safavi Kouhsareh, “Cyber Operations as Use of Force”, Public Law Studies Quarterly, Volume 48, Issue 2, 2018. (in Persian)
    19. Talbot, Jensen, E. “Sovereignty and Neutrality in Cyber Conflict”, Fordham International Law Journal, Volume 35, Issue 3, 2012.
    20. Tanodomdej, P. “The Tallinn Manuals and the Making of the International Law on Cyber Operations”, Masaryk University Journal of Law and Technology, Volume 13, Issue 1, 2019.
    21. Tarigan, M. I. and Tirtamulia, T. “Strengthening International Law as a Guarrantee for High Seas Fisheries Conservations”, Bian Hukum Lingkungan, Volume 4, Issue 2, 2020.
    22. Towhidi, Ahamd Reza and Reyhaneh Zandi, “An Investigation into the Ruling of International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea in the Norstar Case”, Journal of Oceanography, Volume 13, Issue 51, 2022. (in Persian)

    Thesis

    1. Melzer, Nils. “Cyberwarfare and International Law”, UN IDIR Resources, 2011.
    2. Nalísha Kum, Savita, “Maritime Zones (Contiguous Zone) Regulations”, A Legislation Drafting Project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements, for the award of the Degree of Master of Humanities, Supervisor: Norman Martinez Gutierrez, 2020.

    Instrument Sites

    1. UN General Assembly; Convention on the Law of the Sea, 10 December 1982. Available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/3dd8fd1b4.html/

     

     

     

     

    1. Brownlie, Ian, Principles of Public International Law (Edition: James Crawford), Translated by: Mohammad Habibi Mojandeh, Qom: Mofid University, First Edition, 2017. (in Persian)
    2. Churchill, Robin and Allen Lowe, International Law of the Sea, Translated by: Bahman Aghaie, Tehran: Ganj-e-Danesh, 10th edition, 2021. (in Persian)
    3. Delerue, François. Cyber Operations and International Law, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020.
    4. Lemieux, Frederic (ed.). Current and Emerging Trends in Cyber Operations: Policy, Strategy and Practice, London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.
    5. Matin Daftari, Ahmad, Evolution of International Law of the Sea: From Grotius to Geneva Conferences, (Setting and Editing: Houshang Zandi), Tehran: Ganj-e-Danesh, First Edition, 2008. (in Persian)
    6. Omidi, Ali, International Law: From Theory to Practice, Tehran: Mizan, Second Edition, 2015. (in Persian)
    7. Pir-Nia (MoshiroDouleh), Hassan, International Law, (by effort of Mohammad Golban), Tehran: Didar, First Edition, 2006. (in Persian)
    8. Roscini, Marco. Cyber Operations and the Use of Force in International Law, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.
    9. Schmitt, Michael (ed.). Tallinn Manual 2.0 on the International Law Applicable to Cyber Operations, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017.
    10. Schmitt, Michael (ed.). Tallinn Manual on the International Law Applicable to Cyber Warfare, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013.
    11. Shaw, Malcolm Natan, International Law, Translated by: Mohammad Hossein Vaghar, Tehran: Ettela’at, First Edition, 2010. (in Persian)
    12. US Department of State. US DoD Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, Available at: https://irp.fas.org/doddir/dod/dictionary.pdf, Date of Release: 2021, Accessed: 21 February 2023.
    13. Zamani, Sayyed Ghasem, A Reflection on the Observance of Law of Neutrality in the War Imposed against Iran by Iraq, Tehran: Shahr-e-Danesh, First Edition, 2001. (in Persian)
    14. Ziaei Bigdeli, Mohammad Reza, Public International Law, Tehran: Ganj-e-Danesh, 75th Edition, 2022. (in Persian)
    15. Zol’eyin, Parviz, Fundamentals of Public International Law, Tehran: Publication Center of Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Sixth Edition, 2009. (in Persian)

    Articles

    1. Aalberts, Tanja E. and Gammeltoft-Hansen, Thomas. “Sovereignty at Sea: The Law and Politics of Saving Lives in Mare Liberum”, Journal of International Relations and Development, Issue 17, 2014.
    2. Barnsby, Robert and Shane Reeeves, “Give Them an Inch, They’ll Take a Terabyte: How States May Interpret Tallinn Manual 2.0’s International Human Rights Law Chapter”, Texas Law Review, Volume 95, 2019.
    3. Biller, J. “Cyber Operations and the Second Geneva Convention”, International Review of the Red Cross, Volume 10, Issues 1-2-3, 2018.
    4. Biller, J. T. and Schmitt, N. Michael, “Classification of Cyber Capabilities
      and Operations as Weapons, Means, or Methods of Warfare”. International Law Studies, Volume 95, 2019.
    5. Chircop, L. “Territorial Sovereignty in Cyberspace after Tallinn Manual 2.0.”, Melbourne Journal of International Law, Volume 20, 2019.
    6. Fazaeli, Mostafa and Mehdi Keykhosravi, “A Comparative Study of Territorial Waters and Its Governing Requirements in the Convention on the Legal Status of the Caspian Sea and the Convention on the Law of the Sea”, Journal of Comparative Law Review, Volume 12, Issue 1, 2021. (in Persian)
    7. Hassan-Khani, Ali and Sayyed Jamal Seyfi, “Countermeasures for Human Rights Obligations”, Journal of Public Law Research, Volume 19, Issue 56, 2017. (in Persian)
    8. Lotrionte, C. “Reconsidering the Consequences for State-Sponsored Hostile Cyber Operations Under International Law”, The Cyber Defense Review, Volume 3, Issue 2, 2018.
    9. Mir-Heydar, Dorreh, Bahador Gholami and Fatemeh Sadat Mir-Ahmadi, Political Geography and International Law of the Sea, Human Geography Research Quarterly, Volume 46, Issue 2, 2014. (in Persian)
    10. Momtaz, Jamshid, “Dual Interpretation of Convention on Law of the Sea, Iran’s Maritime Zones Act and the US Objection, In: Momtaz, Jamshid (with the cooperation of Amir Hossein Ranjbarian)”, Iran and International Law, Translation and Research: Amir Hossein Ranjbarian, Tehran: Dadgostar, First Edition, 1997. (in Persian)
    11. Mousavi, Sayyed Fazlollah, Mehdi Mousavi and Ensieh Jadidi, “Current Challenges of International a Law concerning the Jurisdiction over Piracy”, Law Research Quarterly, Volume 13, Issue 32, 2011. (in Persian)
    12. Neo, M. “The Rising Threat of Maritime Cyber-Attacks: Level of Maritime Cyber-Security Preparedness Along the Straits of Malacca and Singapore”, Sea Power Soundings, Issue 42, 2021.
    13. Office of the Staff Judge Advocate. “General Principles of the Law of the Sea”, International Law Studies, Volume 97, Issue 27, 2021.
    14. Patrick, C. “Debugging the Tallinn Manual 2.0’s Application of the Due Diligence Principle to Cyber Operations”, Washington International Law Journal, Volume 28, Issue 2, 2019.
    15. Ranjbar, Alireza and Ali Garshasbi, “Fundamental Obstacles Facing the Codification of International Law Governing Cyber-Attacks”, Journal of International Law Review, Volume 37, Issue 63, 2021. (in Persian)
    16. Rasoul-Pour Nalkiashari, Somayeh, Afshin Jafari, Abdolkarim Shaheidar, “Maritime Delimitation Zones in the Framework of Customary Rules”, Journal of Interdisciplinary Legal Researches, Volume 1, Issue 4, 2021. (in Persian)
    17. Salehi, Javad, “Freedom of the High Seas in Conflict with Coastal State Jurisdiction with Reference to “Norstar” Case”, Journal of International Law Review, Volume 37, Issue 63, 2021. (in Persian)
    18. Shayegan, Farideh and Sayyed Hamed Safavi Kouhsareh, “Cyber Operations as Use of Force”, Public Law Studies Quarterly, Volume 48, Issue 2, 2018. (in Persian)
    19. Talbot, Jensen, E. “Sovereignty and Neutrality in Cyber Conflict”, Fordham International Law Journal, Volume 35, Issue 3, 2012.
    20. Tanodomdej, P. “The Tallinn Manuals and the Making of the International Law on Cyber Operations”, Masaryk University Journal of Law and Technology, Volume 13, Issue 1, 2019.
    21. Tarigan, M. I. and Tirtamulia, T. “Strengthening International Law as a Guarrantee for High Seas Fisheries Conservations”, Bian Hukum Lingkungan, Volume 4, Issue 2, 2020.
    22. Towhidi, Ahamd Reza and Reyhaneh Zandi, “An Investigation into the Ruling of International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea in the Norstar Case”, Journal of Oceanography, Volume 13, Issue 51, 2022. (in Persian)

    Thesis

    1. Melzer, Nils. “Cyberwarfare and International Law”, UN IDIR Resources, 2011.
    2. Nalísha Kum, Savita, “Maritime Zones (Contiguous Zone) Regulations”, A Legislation Drafting Project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements, for the award of the Degree of Master of Humanities, Supervisor: Norman Martinez Gutierrez, 2020.

    Instrument Sites

    1. UN General Assembly; Convention on the Law of the Sea, 10 December 1982. Available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/3dd8fd1b4.html/

     

     

     

     

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History

  • Receive Date: 01 May 2023
  • Revise Date: 15 August 2023
  • Accept Date: 07 November 2023

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